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This paper uses Hierarchical Bayes Models to model and estimate spatial health effects in Germany. We combine rich individual-level household panel data from the German SOEP with administrative county-level data to estimate spatial county-level health dependencies. As dependent variable we use the generic, continuous, and quasi-objective SF12 health measure. We find strong and highly significant spatial dependencies and clusters. The strong and systematic county-level impact is equivalent to 0.35 standard deviations in health. Even 20 years after German reunification, we detect a clear spatial East–West health pattern that equals an age impact on health of up to 5 life years for a 40-year old. ; NOTICE: This is the author's version of a work that was accepted for publication in "Regional Sciences & Urban Economics". Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as peer review, editing, corrections, structural formatting, and other quality control mechanisms may not be reflected in this document. Changes may have been made to this work since it was submitted for publication. A definitive version was subsequently published in Regional Science & Urban Economics 49 (2014), pp.305-320 and is online available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2014.06.005.

Voluntary work is an important contribution for many non-profit organizations, such as charities, political and religious organizations. Older individuals make up a sizable share of the volunteer workforce, and volunteering is often regarded as an example of "active ageing". In this study, we examine whether retirement has a causal effect on the frequency of voluntary work provision in three English-speaking countries - England, Ireland and the U.S. We draw on data from the ELSA, TILDA and HRS studies and employ a harmonised approach in the empirical analysis. We use eligibility ages for old age pensions in an instrumental variable estimation to address potential confounding. We find that retirement increases the frequency of voluntary work provision in all three countries, especially among men. This suggests that labour market policies aimed at increasing labour force participation at older ages might have unintended consequences for the size of the volunteer workforce.

The German health care reform implemented in 2009 led to a considerable increase in price transparency within the statutory health insurance (SHI) (Gesetzliche Krankenversicherung, GKV) system and also made it more consumer-friendly which, in turn, has encouraged policy holders to react to price hikes by switching to a different health insurance fund (sickness fund). In 2009, the government established a central health care fund (Gesundheitsfond) which standardized contribution rates. Price differences between the sickness funds are now listed separately on the policy holder's bill as add-on or reimbursed premiums. It is above all these add-on premiums that gave policy holders a clear price signal. According to SOEP representative survey data, in 2010 this resulted in one in ten individuals affected by add-on premiums switching health plans. Aggregated sickness fund level data show that the add-on premiums introduced by the DAK and KKH-Allianz resulted in a 7.5 percent average annual loss of members. However, at the beginning of 2011, a generous increase in the uniform contribution rate for all sickness funds and the extravagant filling of the health care fund with the additional reserves means that in 2012, it is likely that no sickness fund will have to charge add-on premiums thus thwarting any price transparency previously achieved by the add-on premiums. As of 2013 the situation could change again as a result of increasing health care spending and a downturn in the economy. However, the government should not count on this happening, and instead should introduce new incentives to strengthen price competition, for example by capping the health care fund's payments to the sickness.

Die 2009 implementierte Gesundheitsreform hat die Preistransparenz und somit die Verbraucherfreundlichkeit innerhalb der gesetzlichen Krankenversicherung (GKV) zunächst deutlich erhöht und die Bereitschaft der Versicherten gefördert, auf Preiserhöhungen mit einem Wechsel der Krankenkasse zu reagieren. Denn mit der Einführung des Gesundheitsfonds 2009 wurden alle Beitragssätze vereinheitlicht. Preisunterschiede zwischen den Krankenkassen werden den Versicherten als Zusatzbeiträge separat in Rechnung gestellt oder als Prämie zurückerstattet. Vor allem die Zusatzbeiträge haben den Versicherten in den Jahren 2010 und 2011 ein klares Preissignal gegeben. Im Jahr 2010 hat jeder zehnte Betroffene daraufhin die Krankenkasse gewechselt, wie sich auf Basis repräsentativer Umfragedaten des SOEP zeigen lässt. Die Zusatzbeiträge bei der DAK und der KKH-Allianz haben im Vergleich zur Entwicklung der anderen Ersatzkassen zu einem Mitgliederverlust im Jahresdurchschnitt 2010 von 7,5 Prozent geführt. Die großzügige Anhebung des für alle Krankenkassen vereinheitlichten Beitragssatzes zum Jahresanfang 2011 und der damit üppig gefüllte Gesundheitsfonds haben jedoch die durch Zusatzbeiträge erreichte Preistransparenz ausgebremst. Denn 2012 wird voraussichtlich keine Krankenkasse einen Zusatzbeitrag erheben müssen. Ab 2013 könnte sich das infolge steigender Gesundheitsausgaben und einer sich abschwächenden Konjunktur wieder ändern. Doch darauf sollte sich die Politik nicht verlassen, sondern den Preiswettbewerb mit neuen Anreizen stärken: Dies könnte zum Beispiel durch eine Deckelung der Zahlungen aus dem Gesundheitsfonds an die Kassen gelingen.