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Abstract: Trauma and Collective Memories in Georgia's Foreign PolicyGeorgia's foreign policy since the mid-1990s would appear to be a regional anomaly. While Georgia's neighbors have either accommodated to Russia's geopolitical interests or sought to navigate between Russia and the West, Georgian governments have pursued a comparatively stable pro-Western foreign policy orientation. Thus, structural arguments like geographic proximity, or Russia's assertive foreign policy, cannot account for the variation in foreign-policy orientation among post-Soviet states. Moreover, although alternative explanations, like Georgia's European identity and commitment to democracy, or explanations related to qualities of the Mikheil Saakashvili government, are not without merits, they cannot fully account for the continuity in Georgia's pro-Western foreign policy over time. This article argues that the collective memory of the traumatic years 1989–1994 is a key factor for understanding Georgia's foreign policy continuity. The collective memory and trauma related to loss of territory, together with a weak state and Russia's negative involvement, have shaped the strategic thinking of Georgia's foreign policy elites. This trauma explains Georgia's shift to a pro-Western foreign policy in the mid-1990s and the continuity of this policy up until today. This argument is supported by the author's interviews with key Georgian decision-makers responsible for foreign policy decisions.

Georgia's foreign policy since the mid-1990s would appear to be a regional anomaly. While Georgia's neighbors have either accommodated to Russia's geopolitical interests or sought to navigate between Russia and the West, Georgian governments have pursued a comparatively stable pro-Western foreign policy orientation. Thus, structural arguments like geographic proximity, or Russia's assertive foreign policy, cannot account for the variation in foreign-policy orientation among post-Soviet states. Moreover, although alternative explanations, like Georgia's European identity and commitment to democracy, or explanations related to qualities of the Mikheil Saakashvili government, are not without merits, they cannot fully account for the continuity in Georgia's pro-Western foreign policy over time. This article argues that the collective memory of the traumatic years 1989–1994 is a key factor for understanding Georgia's foreign policy continuity. The collective memory and trauma related to loss of territory, together with a weak state and Russia's negative involvement, have shaped the strategic thinking of Georgia's foreign policy elites. This trauma explains Georgia's shift to a pro-Western foreign policy in the mid-1990s and the continuity of this policy up until today. This argument is supported by the author's interviews with key Georgian decision-makers responsible for foreign policy decisions.

Chapter 1. Perspectives on the significance of borders in Europe: Past challenges, future developments -- Chapter 2. EU Border Policy: Enhanced Border Security and Challenges to Free Movement -- Chapter 3. TThe return of borders in the world economy: An EU-perspective -- Chapter 4. The boundaries of the internal market in- and outside the EU -- Chapter 5. EU norm promotion in a conflictual world. An existential necessity with obstacles? -- Chapter 6. The ability of the EU to extend its model of a social market economy beyond its borders -- Chapter 7. The EU's dependence on Russian energy — A force that divides or unites the Union? -- Chapter 8. The EU's fight against money laundering and terrorist financing in a digital and fragmented world.-Chapter 9. The European security order: Is this the end of the road? -- Chapter 10. A European Marshall Plan for a Ukraine on the way to the EU -- Chapter 11. The EU's internal and external borders in a world torn by conflict.

Intro -- Contents -- Notes on Contributors -- List of Figures -- List of Tables -- 1 The Road Ahead for the European Union: Between Federal Union and Flexible Integration -- Introduction -- Integration to Achieve Union: A Process Fraught with Difficulties -- The Constant Tension Between Supranationalism and Intergovernmentalism -- Enlargement: A Driving Force Towards Deepening or Towards Fragmentation? -- Gauging the Future Direction of European Integration -- References -- 2 Democracy in Europe: Enlarged But Eroding-A Union in Existential Crisis -- The EU, Democratic Institutions, and Peaceful Relations -- The Enlargement of the Union and the Expansion of Democracy -- The Enlargement of the Union and the Erosion of Democracy -- Autocratization Within the EU -- The Union at a Crossroads -- Is the Union Moving Towards Flexible Integration? -- Working for Exclusion -- References -- 3 Rule of Law Crisis: EU in Limbo Between Federalism and Flexible Integration -- Introduction -- The Significance of the Rule of Law for the EU -- The Rule of Law as a Crisis -- Political Tools -- Legal Tools -- Financial Tools -- EU in Limbo Between Federalism and Flexible Integration -- The Way Out of Limbo: To Fully Apply Existing Tools -- References -- 4 Parliament as an Arena for Opposition in EU Politics: Wasteland or Conflict Zone? -- Democracy, Political Opposition, and Parliament -- Two Theses Concerning Opposition in EU Politics -- Examining Political Opposition -- How Much Opposition is There in EU Politics? -- How Does the Incidence of Opposition Vary Between Parties of Different Types? -- Is Opposition Concentrated in Certain Policy Areas? -- The Isolated Conflict Zone -- The Way Forward-Institutional Reforms or Democratic Leadership? -- References -- 5 European Stabilisation Policy After the COVID-19 Pandemic: More Flexible Integration or More Federalism?.

1. The EU and the precarious routes to political, economic and social resilience. By Antonina Bakardjieva Engelbrekt, Per Ekman, Anna Michalski and Lars Oxelheim -- 2. Improved Framework Conditions for a More Entrepreneurial, Innovative and Resilient EU. By Niklas Elert and Magnus Henrekson -- 3. Towards a climate-neutral union by 2050? The European Green Deal, Climate Law, and Green Recovery. By Karin Bäckstrand -- 4. Legal preconditions for an environmentally sustainable European Union. By David Langlet -- 5. COVID-19 and the EU's ability to manage and prevent health crises. By Louise Bengtsson -- 6. The Demographic Challenge Facing the EU Roads to Sustainability in an Ageing Europe. By Titti Mattsson -- 7. How Can a Banking Union Make the EU More Resilient to Crises?. By Jens Forssbæck -- 8. EU Resilience in the Internal Market after Financial Crisis: Political Resolve and Legal Responsiveness. By Carl Fredrik Bergström -- 9. Immigration and Asylum in the EU: A Resilient Policy for Integration?. By Karin Borevi -- 10. Intra-European labour migration for a resilient EU. By Erik Sjödin and Eskil Wadensjö -- 11.Conclusion. The EU and the search for sustainability and resilience. By Antonina Bakardjieva Engelbrekt, Per Ekman, Anna Michalski and Lars Oxelheim.