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Based on the experiences of Colombia, Brazil and Bolivia, the paper proposes a general analytical framework for participatory mechanisms. The analysis is oriented to detect the incentives in each system and theethics and behavior sustaining them. It investigates about the sustainability of participatory democracy, in the face of tensions with representative democracy. The article presents a theoretical framework built from theseexperiences of institutional design and political practice, and confronts it against the theoretical conceptualizationsof participatory democracy in Bobbio, Sartori, Elster and Nino, among others. In this context, different waysin which those schemes can be inserted in the political systems become apparent, along with the variables thatresult from combining elements of direct, representative and participatory democracy"

Different problems of access to scientific knowledge by researchers from developing countries are surveyed. Obstacles are classified according to their source: those inherent to research processes in general & having special inhibitory effects on researchers from developing countries, & those related to the institutional framework & economic environment of the developing country itself. The trend toward privatization of scientific results has led many open-science institutions in industrialized countries to restrict access to the knowledge they use & produce. Nonetheless, the inability of scientific & technological communities of developing countries to endogenize economic & political support for their activities is presented as the main obstacle for their access to knowledge. Insufficient resources for research, even in countries that could easily allocate important funds for these activities, are shown to be an important obstacle in a world where scientific & technological information is increasingly marketed & expensive. The dynamics leading to a low-efficiency equilibrium of scientific & technological activities are characterized. 4 Figures, 22 References. Adapted from the source document.

Knowledge accumulated for centuries by ethnic communities about their habitat is increasingly being used for commercial purposes in fields such as pharmacy & agriculture. Transnational corporations & research laboratories use knowledge obtained from the analysis of plants & other biological samples provided by ethnic communities, or from the observation of their traditional practices. This paper proposes an interpretation of intercultural processes that take place in the exchange of traditional knowledge between ethnic groups & different kinds of agents in modern societies. The exchange between indigenous communities that possess the knowledge & researchers from universities & transnational corporations willing to develop & exploit that knowledge is marked by a deep information asymmetry. Guidelines for a regulatory framework protecting vernacular knowledge & simultaneously providing incentives for modern scientific research are suggested. Under this scheme, communities might improve their ability to defend their rights & demand the enforcement of certain rules conditioning the use of traditional knowledge by firms, laboratories, & research institutes. At the same time, investment for research in this field would be stimulated. 33 References. Adapted from the source document.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to analyze the differential impact each of the dominant theoretical explanations has on innovation persistence. The authors hereby differentiate the degree of novelty, distinguishing between innovation based on invention (new products for the international market) and those based on imitation or adoption processes (new products for the company or new products in the national market). Design/methodology/approach: Placing this study in the context of a developing country, the authors apply an ordered probit model inflated in zeros (ZIOP). This methodology enables one to not only provide results not biased by the excess of zeros but also take into account the unobserved heterogeneity with respect to the sources of zeros (that is those firms which do not innovate). The empirical analysis is based on three Colombian innovation surveys carried out between 2003 and 2008 by the Colombian National Statistics Department. Findings: The results provide empirical evidence that two elements are essential for both types of innovation persistence: accessing external financial resources and learning through interaction. Furthermore, the sunk R&D cost approach and technological learning explain persistence in innovation of new products for the international market. Research limitations/implications: The limitations of this study are directly related to the methodological choice. The authors were unable to take into consideration two sources of heterogeneity: the one related to initial conditions and the one related to the source of the many non-innovators. They opted to focus on the latter due the research question and setting of this study. Additionally, macroeconomic instability did not allow to consider a long panel; instead the authors had to rely on a short panel. Practical implications: The results provide important insights to managers. Continuous investments in innovation activities are important bot to become an innovative firm as well as to improve the odds of persistently innovating. Particularly, R&D investments are a pre-requisite for new-to-the-world innovations. Finally, it is not one specific set of capabilities which is a prerequisite for the generation of innovation; rather it is a strategic combination of various skills that increase the probability to (persistently) innovate. Social implications: With innovation persistence being especially relevant for long-run dynamics behind economic growth, the results of this study provide insights into potential public policies. Governments are in a position to at least lower barriers, which might enable more firms to persistently innovate. Continuous access – less than the actual amount – to financial resources aimed at innovation activities and learning through interaction with external agents is fundamental for both kinds of innovation persistence. Both are market characteristics where governments can – at least indirectly – intervene. Originality/value: Despite the existence of various theoretical approaches, the bulk of empirical research focuses on the verification of true state innovation persistence. Thus, while innovation persistency has been widely confirmed to exist to a certain degree, knowledge regarding which theoretical approach is likely to drive a firm to persistently innovation is still scarce. Additionally, this study is placed in the context of a developing country, which by most empirical research has been overlooked but is characterized by one element which is decisive for the empirical methodology: many firms do not innovate, let alone persistently innovate.