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This study measures the impact of spatial factors on the educational achievements of Russian students. According to the theory of equal opportunities, individual achievements depend on two groups of determinants: uncontrollable circumstances and one's own efforts. Inequality of achievements produced by inequality of effort is treated as ethically acceptable, while inequality arising from circumstances is unfair and therefore must be compensated. The research is based on the data of the International Program for the Assessment of Educational Achievements of Students (PISA), wave 2018. Multilevel regression modeling was applied. A two-level model was used, in which the first level is that of the student, while the second level is regional.
The calculations showed that anywhere from 14 to 16% of the variance in Russian students' academic achievements is attributed to interregional irregularities. We learned that controlling for socio-economic status, lack of staff and material support in the school, type of area in which the school is located, and gender of the student make it possible to slightly reduce the role of regional differences, though it still remained significant. To a certain extent the impact of regional factor can be explained by variations in the influence of family background, school characteristics and gender across regions. The estimation of regional random effects allowed for identifying both the leaders and the outsiders in terms of the availability and quality of school education. Calculations have shown that the leaders and outsiders are practically the same in regards to all three areas of literacy.

The article of record as published may be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2016GB005418 ; All iron data used in this study are available from GEOTRACES (http://www.bodc.ac.uk/geotraces/data) ; We use tracers to partition dissolved iron (dFe) into the contributions from each source within a numerical model of the iron cycle without perturbing the system. These contributions are further partitioned according to the time since injection into the ocean, which defines their iron-age spectrum and mean iron age. The utility of these diagnostics is illustrated for a family of inverse model estimates of the iron cycle, constrained by a data-assimilated circulation and available dFe measurements. The source contributions are compared with source anomalies defined as the differences between solutions with and without the source in question. We find that in the Southern Ocean euphotic zone, the hydrothermal and sediment contributions range from 15% to 30% of the total each, which the anomalies underestimate by a factorof∼2becauseofthenonlinearityofscavenging.Theironageisonlyresetbyscavengingandattains a mean of several hundred years in the Southern Ocean euphotic zone, revealing that aeolian iron there is supplied primarily from depth as regenerated dFe. Tagging iron according to source region and pathways shows that 70–80% of the aeolian dFe in the euphotic zone near Antarctica is supplied from north of 46∘S via paths that reach below 1 km depth. Hydrothermal iron has the oldest surface mean ages on the order of middepth ventilation times. A measure of uncertainty is provided by the systematic variations of our diagnostics across the family of iron cycle estimates, each member of which has a different aeolian sourcestrength. ; Australian Research Council ; Government of Monaco ; Scientific Centre of Monaco ; Frères Louis et Max Principale Foundation ; Cuomo Foundation ; Australian Research Council grant DP120100674

The dynamics of inequality of educational achievements and opportunities in school education in Russia and the countries of the Visegrad group are studied. The study is based on the data of the "International Program for the Assessment of Educational Achievements of Students" (PISA) for 2003-2018. The methodology for assessing the inequality of possibilities is based on a parametric approach and ex-ante determination of the equality of possibilities. Research novelty is determined by the fact that an assessment of an important component of the inequality of educational achievements - the inequality of opportunities - is carried out. The idea of dividing inequality into unfair and fair components is justified within the framework of the theory of equal opportunities developed by Western social philosophy in the second half of the XX century. The completed calculations indicate that each of the countries under consideration is unique. The most problematic are Slovakia and Hungary, which have a downward trend in the average level of educational achievements and a high level of inequality of opportunities. Poland looks the most successful with an increase in educational results and a decrease in inequality of opportunities. In the Russian Federation there is an upward trend in reading and mathematical literacy, while natural science literacy stagnates. The level of inequality of opportunities in the Russian Federation is relatively low with a slight downward trend.

In the run-up to launching the «Next Generation EU» large-scale recovery plan aimed at overcoming the Covid-19 pandemic consequences it becomes important to analyse the pre-Covid development problems, including those in the field of education. The purpose of this work is to study the dynamics of inequality in educational achievements and opportunities in the Visegrad Group countries based on the PISA data from 2003–2018 period. The results obtained by our research team suggest that Hungary has the highest level of inequality of opportunity among the Visegrad Group countries, followed by Slovakia. Meanwhile, individual factors contributing to the overall level of inequality of opportunity have both features common to all countries and unique features.

The topic of this research is the theory of equal opportunities and its application to the relationship between inequality and economic development. The relevance of the work is due, first, to the fact that inequality grows throughout the world, creating conditions for the growth of social tension; second, to the lack of general consensus on the direction of the relationship between inequality and economic growth; and third, to contradictory results of empirical studies on this issue. The main hypothesis of the study is that these theoretical and empirical contradictions can be resolved by dividing inequality into two components —inequality of opportunity and inequality of effort — and studying their impact on economic growth separately. The idea of distinguishing between inequality of opportunity and inequality of effort is a core part of the theory of equal opportunities. The paper briefly reviews the roots, development, and current state of the theory. Methods for measuring inequality of opportunities have been developed and tested on microdata from many countries, including Russia. Also, at the theoretical level, mechanisms of the negative impact of inequality of opportunities and the positive impact of inequality of efforts on economic growth have been identified. At the same time, there are very few empirical studies dealing with the relationship between inequality of opportunity, inequality of effort, and economic growth. In practical terms, studies of the inequality of opportunity are important because they shift the goals and priorities of public policy from equalizing outcomes to equalizing opportunities. This makes it possible to move towards a more just and rapidly developing society.