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Recreation specialization is a framework that can be used to explain the variation among outdoor recreationists' preferences, attitudes, and behaviors. Recreation specialization has been operationalized using several approaches, including summative indices, cluster analysis, and self-classification categorical measures. Although these approaches measure the multiple dimensions of the framework, they may not reflect the relative contribution of the dimensions to individuals' degree of engagement. We illustrate an approach that uses second-order confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) factor scores as weights to determine a person's degree of recreation specialization and compares the CFA-based results to those derived from cluster analysis. This approach permits the use of a broader set of statistical tests when compared to categorical specialization measures and provides information about the distribution of responses. Data were collected from an online survey of eBird registrants from the United States. ; National Flyway Council [CON000000054673, 00049956]; Social Sciences & Humanities Research Council of CanadaSocial Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) [435-2017-1352] ; Funding for this project was provided by the National Flyway Council (https://www.fws.gov/birds/management/flyways.php) through a grant to the University of Minnesota Award: CON000000054673 Project#: 00049956 (DCF). Representatives of the National Flyway Council who are not named authors contributed to study design, but not to data collection/analysis, decision to publish, nor preparation of the manuscript. The preparation of this manuscript was supported by funding from the Social Sciences & Humanities Research Council of Canada (File #435-2017-1352; HWH). ; Public domain authored by a U.S. government employee

Outdoor recreation facilitates important connections to nature and wildlife, but it is perceived differently across population segments. As such, we expected that socio-demographic characteristics of individuals would influence intention to participate in outdoor recreation. We solicited 5,000 U.S. residents (n = 1,030, 23% response rate) to describe their perceptions of hunting and birdwatching. The influence of current and childhood community size (i.e., urban-rural) was examined as a potentially important predictor of intention to participate in hunting and birdwatching, along with attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioral control (PBC). Hunting intentions, attitudes, norms, and PBC were more positive when respondents maintained a residence in rural areas. Alternatively, birdwatching attitudes, norms, and PBC did not differ with current or childhood community size. Programs aimed at increasing participation in outdoor recreation should carefully consider the importance of the urban-rural residence gradient in the context of their objectives, especially for recruiting urban hunters. ; U.S. Geological Survey, Ecosystems Mission Area, Wildlife Program ; This work was supported by the U.S. Geological Survey, Ecosystems Mission Area, Wildlife Program. ; Public domain authored by a U.S. government employee