Suchergebnisse

The institutionalism of the Hungarian regional development is way ahead of its Regional Development Act, which was introduced in 1996, and the democratic transformation of 1989, but the regional development as we understand it nowadays takes in account the local actors' needs and goals since the middle of the 1990s. The most significant regional development measure from the two years after the democratic transformation was the external cabinet meeting. When the government sensed some kind of crisis in one region, it held an external cabinet meeting, where and when they made a measure package to handle the regional crises, but these measures were only ad hoc measures in most of the cases. The central governmental measures only got a few good results, which made the government include local actors in the decision making process. Including the local actors, and in some way putting the local level above the regional level created an unsuccessful result with regards to the governmental regional development politics. The legislators' intention with the Regional Development Act of 1996 was to insure the publicity of the controlling and planning systems, the enforcement of the democratic values, and the establishment of the complex conditions with regards to the planning, controlling, distribution and finance in the field of regional politics. In 2011 with an amendment of the above mentioned act the lawmakers terminated the local level development councils and by the 1st of January, 2012 these tasks went under the authority of the county governments and the county-cities.

Energy is one of the key tools of Russian geopolitical advocacy that Russia can still use efficiently through the energy supply systems built up after WWII and that is still unavoidable. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the advocacy role of the Russian state has decreased however it has never completely lost its influence on the energy sector and thereby on the countries depending on it. We can speak about the active use of energy relations as a tool of political advocacy again since 2006, nonetheless we cannot observe a complete lack of use of these tools between 1990 and 2006 either. The former Soviet republics and the former satellite countries were the targets of these actions, which illustrates the long-term effects of energy dependency systems developed between 1945 and 1990. The 2006 Russian-Ukrainian conflict was the first, when Russia did not only threaten with but actually reduced the amount of natural gas transported. During the 2006 and the 2009 Russian-Ukrainian conflicts, it became clear that Russia actually uses limitation of supply and price policy pressure and not only as a means of threat in order to enforce its political interests, even accepting its negative consequences.