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In today's digital environment, users freely use almost all available digital services, from opening and maintaining bank accounts, shopping, working, education, entertainment to sharing private content (photos, videos) and sending confidential information via email. The evolution of the Internet has also radically changed the nature of communication between individuals and influenced contemporary friendship making. The increased use of cyberspace to establish social relationships has also resulted in the emergence of new forms of crime, leading to the extortion of information, photos, videos or money. Consequently, this has increased the ability of criminals to seek out potential victims around the world and exploit ('hopeful') individuals seeking relationships with other users" . Criminals use a range of dating websites and apps to contact victims, but are increasingly using social media platforms, including Facebook, WhatsaApp, Instagram, TikTok . More often than not, these types of relationships end in a form of blackmail and the articulation of threats to disseminate intimate images or recordings if the victim does not comply with certain demands, whether behavioural (sending more sexual images or continuing an intimate relationship) or financial . The phenomenon described above is one of many pieces of evidence supporting the thesis that perceptions of the Internet have long since moved beyond the limits of technology. Analyses of cyberspace are increasingly recognising this unique environment as a set of social practices. Tools for understanding how people use technology to, among other things, interact with other users are therefore gaining importanceEn el entorno digital moderno, los usuarios utilizan libremente casi todos los servicios disponibles: abren cuentas bancarias, compran, trabajan, estudian, se entretienen, comparten contenidos privados (fotos, vídeos) o envían información confidencial por correo electrónico. La evolución de Internet también ha cambiado radicalmente la naturaleza de la comunicación entre individuos y ha influido en la forma de entablar amistades. El mayor uso del ciberespacio para establecer relaciones sociales también ha hecho surgir nuevas formas de delincuencia, que conducen a la extorsión de información, fotos, vídeos o dinero. En consecuencia, ha aumentado la capacidad de los delincuentes para buscar víctimas potenciales en todo el mundo y explotar a individuos ("esperanzados") que buscan relaciones con otros usuarios. Los delincuentes no solo utilizan diversos sitios web y aplicaciones de citas para ponerse en contacto con las víctimas, sino que también utilizan cada vez más las plataformas de las redes sociales, como Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram o TikTok. En la mayoría de los casos, este tipo de relaciones terminan en una forma de chantaje y amenazas de divulgar imágenes o grabaciones íntimas si la víctima no cumple determinadas exigencias, ya sean de comportamiento (envío de más imágenes de contenido sexual o continuación de una relación íntima) o económicas. El fenómeno descrito es una de las numerosas pruebas que apoyan la teoría de que la percepción de Internet traspasó hace mucho tiempo los límites de la tecnología. Los análisis del ciberespacio reconocen cada vez más este entorno único como un conjunto de prácticas sociales. Por lo tanto, los instrumentos que permiten comprender cómo las personas utilizan la tecnología para, entre otras cosas, interactuar con otros usuarios, están cobrando cada vez más importanciaPalabras clave: ciberseguridad, ciberamenazas, ciberfraude, cibermanipulación, phishing, redes sociales

The Visegrad Group countries are taking actions that confirm their ambitions in the framework of cyber security policy. The tasks formulated both in strategic documents and in international forums are evidence of the active role of Central European governments in the area of cyber security. Many countries are facing a rising tide of cyberattacks, which are likely to intensify over time. Any such incident has the potential to inflict significant damage, undermining trust in government and causing unpredictable political consequences. For this reason, there is an apparent desire on the part of the V4 countries to build common cyber resilience based on close cooperation with the EU and NATO. Another way of describing the actions taken in the article is budget spending on cyber security, which is an important measure for assessing the development of the cyber capabilities of individual countries. The article is an attempt to summarize the actions taken by the V4 countries in the period 2013-2021 within the framework of cyber security policy, which for the most part remains in the sphere of mere political declarations. The research analysis undertaken can serve as a starting point for further consideration of V4 cooperation especially in the context of the military aggression of the Russian Federation after 24 February 2022. This event mandates consideration of the future of cooperation between Central European countries – in the broadest sense – on security policy.

Abstract
The article deals with cyber incidents that were recorded in the area of the V4 countries. It is important for the discussed topic to extract certain factors and with their help to characterise the conducted cyberattacks in terms of political motivations. The analysis tries to prove the existence of politically motivated cyberattacks. This, in turn, helps to determine the consequences of such cyber incidents. Moreover, the scale and magnitude of the cyberattack can be information to determine the strategic maturity and cyber capabilities of the adversary. Thus, the incidents that have occurred allow a cyberattack to be characterised in political terms and thus have value as information about ongoing conflicts in cyberspace that either reflect reality or foreshadow actions yet to come in the real world. Cyber operations can also be used as a tool to build a sphere of influence and exert political, economic and military pressure on a particular state.

The Visegrad Group (V4) is one of the most intriguing examples of cooperation among countries in Central Europe. It unites the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia. Together, these countries form a useful framework which facilitates policy coordination at the regional level. They also implement EU agendas by creating networks of cooperation with neighbouring countries. These networks are based on the countries' mutual security geography and a common strategic culture. When, in 2014, the most important political goals were achieved, there emerged a need to set a new direction for cooperation. It turned out that many issues in the field of public policy, such as transport infrastructure, natural environment, tourism, migration, culture or education, can be effectively implemented at the V4 level. Moreover, cooperation in a common cybersecurity policy is now a chance for deeper cooperation between the four countries. However, changes in the use and dissemination of cybertechnology in the public space began to gather momentum only in the first decade of the 21st century. Thus, the process of cyberrevolution was a harbinger of changes in state management. This study analyses the cybersecurity policy of the Visegrad Group countries from 2011–2022 from both military and non-military aspects.

The main objective of security policy is to prevent threats, which means to fight certain phenomena at their very source. Governments of many countries threatened by a terrorist attack are still searching for an effective way to prevent attacks on intended terrorist targets and to uncover them in time. It is now recognised that monitoring telephone and internet communications is one of the most effective ways to combat terrorism. In recent years, international security has become one of the most debated issues due to, among other things, the coronavirus pandemic and numerous terrorist attacks. An important factor in preventing these threats is how the state and its services function through the use of a variety of tools and techniques, thus creating new and unique ethical and legal problems. The force and impact of state policy measures are often excessive and disproportionate to the threats posed. In this case, civil rights and liberties are most often violated. Doubts that arise when analysing these two values also stimulate reflection on the question to what extent the state is the victim of threats and to what extent it itself is the aggressor. Contemporary threats such as terrorism or the coronavirus pandemic are a major source of public fear that has far-reaching implications for public governance. The analysis carried out in this study examines the use of digital technologies for surveillance and control of the public by governments as a means to combat contemporary threats. The article describes both cases highlighting the importance of digital technology in maintaining security and cites evidence showing the threats that electronic surveillance poses to democratic norms. In other words, digital control over society promotes security but also restricts civil rights and liberties. The article emphasizes the worrying tendency for governments to implement technology rapidly without sufficient concern for the consequences for socio-political life.

Abstract
The Three Seas Initiative (TSI) is an informal association that focuses mainly on the economic integration of EU member states through the cooperation of specific sectors. It is meant to strengthen the single market and bonds among countries in Central and Eastern Europe. It also seeks to reduce developmental differences between these countries and the older EU member states. This study explores the background of the TSI, which was jointly conceived by the presidents of Poland and Croatia with the goal of strengthening ties among countries in the area between the Black, Baltic and Adriatic seas. The association brings together 12 states across Central and Eastern Europe and the Balkans: Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Romania and Austria. As well as enhancing their political ties, it aims to develop cross-border cooperation and implement macro-regional projects. The analysis highlights both the diverging interests of the TSI countries and their common predicament. These states are connected by the fact that they stand to lose the most from the two-speed Europe idea that some Western politicians have imposed. They are also at a clear disadvantage when it comes to infrastructure investments. In the past, the European Union has emphasized East–West cooperation and overlooked the North–South communication and energy corridors. The Three Seas Initiative founders are trying to determine the best form of cooperation for the Central and Eastern Europe region.

Abstract
The Visegrad Group is the most dynamic transnational group in the Central and Eastern European region, connecting the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary. Together these countries have established a useful framework for engaging with and coordinating policy at a regional level. At the same time, they are implementing EU programmes by creating cooperating networks with neighbouring countries based on their common security needs and strategic culture. This article focuses on the cybersecurity policies of the Visegrad Group countries. My analysis aims to reveal similarities and differences among these states that may be crucial for their future cooperation on a joint Central and Eastern European cybersecurity strategy. A cybersecurity strategy is a basic document created in a governmental context that reflects the interests and security rules at work in cyberspace. This document establishes the framework for future legislation, policies/standards, guidelines and other security- and cybersecurity‑related recommendations. This study is also an attempt to assess the development of cybersecurity policies; as such, it provides an opportunity to hypothesise about the future of cybertechnology in the Visegrad Group region.

W niniejszym artykule przeprowadzona zostaje analiza najważniejszych wyzwań związanych z kulturą bezpieczeństwa, przed którymi stoi obecnie państwo. W pracy omówiono również związek między kulturą polityczną a kulturą bezpieczeństwa. Głównym jednak tematem artykułu jest znaczenie bezpieczeństwa cybernetycznego, którego definicja odnosi się nie tylko do wymiaru technologii, ale i określonych idei, norm oraz zasad, które kształtują egzystencję współczesnego człowieka i pozwalają mu funkcjonować w rzeczywistości wirtualnej. Popularność tego tematu wynika przede wszystkim z dynamicznie rozwijającej się technologii IT, ale i ekspansywnego charakteru cyberprzestrzeni, w której większość już zjawisk społecznych jest obecnie realizowana. Dlatego też w pracy analizowane jest pojęcie kultury cyberbezpieczeństwa w oparciu o porównanie dotychczasowych definicji zarówno kultury politycznej, jak i kultury bezpieczeństwa. Istotne dla poruszanego tematu staje się także skoncentrowanie uwagi na edukacji, która stanowi między innymi narzędzie promocji określonych zasad i wartości. Zaznaczyć jednak należy, że sfera kultury, zarówno w zakresie polityki, jak i bezpieczeństwa, jest niezwykle skomplikowanym i wielowymiarowym procesem, często także oba te obszary wzajemnie się przenikają. A zatem bez zrozumienia znaczenia kultury nie sposób jest skutecznie rozwiązać współczesnych wyzwań w wymiarze polityki bezpieczeństwa.

Due to highly innovative technologies such as the smartphone, cyber- bullying and on-line, aggression has increasingly affected individuals across the world. Cyber-bullying is defined as repeated unwanted, hurtful, harassing, and threatening interaction through electronic communication media. Anonymity and mobility afforded by the Internet have made harassment and expressions of hate effortless in a landscape that is abstract and beyond the realms of traditional law enforcement. Further, it argues that a broad coalition of government, schools, police and citizenry is likely to be most effective in reducing the harm caused by hate speech. The study discusses the targets of hate on the Internet, provides a framework within which problems can be identified and resolved by accentuating moral and social responsibility, and articulates possible solutions to combat with this increasing problem.

Cyberterrorism creates serious and rapidly growing threats to society and the critical infrastructure of the state. This creates significant changes in the prevention and fight against terrorism. The digital world in which society is lived provides a wide range of opportunities for cybercrime as it initiates and encourages the use of hidden Internet capabilities. Cyberterrorism is a crime that is directed against the state and its citizens. Currently, computer networks are at risk and are attacked daily due to inter alia. The inability to maintain dynamic development of web services and widely available hacking tools and techniques. This is the most difficult challenge in the fight against cyberterrorism. However, the term itself is often misused and abused. Understanding the dangers of cyberterrorism must begin with a clear definition of its definition.

Artykuł kładzie nacisk na funkcjonowanie kontrwywiadu w obszarze bezpieczeństwa państwa, które obecnie jest centralnym punktem każdego obszaru funkcjonowania państwa. Polityka powinna być sztuką zarządzania państwem zgodnie z istniejącym kodeksem moralnym, prawnym i ekonomicznym, ale musi także stanowić lub kreować takie rozwiązania, które pozwolą wyjść z niestabilnej lub konfliktowej sytuacji z jak najmniejszymi stratami dla państwa. Najważniejszą rolę odgrywają tu służby kontrwywiadowcze. Polityka bezpieczeństwa jest bowiem kształtowana przez rosnący czynnik niepewności i zagrożenia. W przypadku Rosji działalność służb specjalnych jest filarem zarówno polityki wewnętrznej, jak i zagranicznej. Neutralizacja i zwalczanie rosyjskiego wywiadu w przypadku Polski jest niezwykle trudne, biorąc pod uwagę wieloletnią tradycję, za którą stoi wiedza i ogromne doświadczenie. Kontrwywiad odgrywa istotną rolę dla znaczenia i rozwoju każdego państwa, ponadto dostrzega znaczenie informacji publicznej dla bezpieczeństwa państwa, która ma pomóc m.in. w przewidywaniu i zapobieganiu przyszłym zagrożeniom. Priorytetem jest ochrona informacji przed obcymi służbami działającymi na niekorzyść interesu państwa. ; The paper concerns selected aspects of the activities of the intelligence and counterintelligence services. These services are responsible for ensuring state security, which is currently the main goal of all authorities. Any policy in this regard must reflect the art of state governance according to the existing moral, legal and economic codes, but must also provide or create such opportunities as make it possible to come out of unstable or conflict situations with the least loss for the state. A key role is played here by counterintelligence services. A security policy is shaped by uncertainty and danger. In the case of Russia, the activities of the special services are a pillar of both domestic and foreign policies. Neutralizing and combating Russian intelligence is extremely difficult for Polish services, given the long tradition and extensive knowledge and experience of Russia. Counterintelligence is crucial for the importance and development of each country. By definition, counterintelligence recognizes the importance of public information for the security of the state, to help, among others, in predicting and preventing future threats. The priority is to protect information from foreign services operating at the expense of the national interest.