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Aims: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by presenting a complex pathology, not fully resolved yet. This fact, together with the lack of reliable models, has impeded the development of effective therapies. Recently, several studies have shown that functional glial cell defects have a key role in the pathology of AD. However, this glial dysfunction, currently, cannot be correctly modeled using the available animal models, so we hypothesized that cells derived from Alzheimer's patients can serve as a better platform for studying the disease. In this sense, human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC) allow the generation of different types of neural cells, which can be used for disease modeling, identification of new targets and drugs development. Methods: We have a collection of hiPSCs derived from patients with sporadic forms of AD. We have differentiated these cells towards neural lineage to obtain neurons and astrocytes. For the generation of oligodendrocytes (OLs), we have developed a fast and robust protocol to generate mature OLs in just 22 days. Results: We have generated neural precursors from all the lines tested. In the case of OLs, the cells generated resemble primary OLs and can myelinate neurons in vivo and in vitro using a screening compatible platform. This platform is being transferred for the generation of the other glial cells. Conclusions: This methodology can be used to elucidate the pathogenic pathways associated with neurodegeneration and to identify new therapeutic targets susceptible to modulation, contributing to the development of new effective drugs against AD. ; This study was supported by Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCiii) of Spain, co-financed by FEDER funds from European Union, through grants PI18/01557 (to AG), PI18/01556 (to JV), and CIBERNED (CB06/05/1116 to AG and CB06/05/0094 to JV); by Junta de Andalucia through Consejería de Economía y Conocimiento grants UMA18-FEDERJA-211 (to AG), PY18-RT-2233 (to AG) and US-1262734 (to JV) co-financed by Programa Operativo FEDER 2014-2020 ...

Background: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by presenting a complex pathology, not fully resolved yet. This fact, together with the lack of reliable models, has impeded the development of effective therapies. Recently, several studies have shown that functional glial cell defects have a key role in the pathology of AD. However, this glial dysfunction, currently, cannot be correctly modeled using the available animal models, so we hypothesized that cells derived from Alzheimer's patients can serve as a better platform for studying the disease. In this sense, human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC) allow the generation of different types of neural cells, which can be used for disease modeling, identification of new targets and drugs development. Methods: We have a collection of hiPSCs derived from patients with sporadic forms of AD. We have differentiated these cells towards neural lineage to obtain neurons and astrocytes. For the generation of oligodendrocytes (OLs), we have developed a fast and robust protocol to generate mature OLs in just 22 days. Results: We have generated neural precursors from all the lines tested. In the case of OLs, the cells generated resemble primary OLs and can myelinate neurons in vivo and in vitro using a screening compatible platform. This platform is being transferred for the generation of the other glial cells. Conclusions: This methodology can be used to elucidate the pathogenic pathways associated with neurodegeneration and to identify new therapeutic targets susceptible to modulation, contributing to the development of new effective drugs against AD. ; Acknowledgments: J.A.G.L has been supported by a contract of doctor reincorporation plan from the I Plan Propio of the University of Malaga (Spain) and by CIBERNED. This study was supported by Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCiii) of Spain, cofinanced by FEDER funds from European Union, through grants PI18/01557 (to AG), PI18/01556 (to JV), and CIBERNED (CB06/05/1116 to AG and CB06/05/0094 to JV); by Junta de Andalucia through Consejería de Economía y Conocimiento grants UMA18-FEDERJA-211 (to AG), PY18-RT-2233 (to AG) and US-1262734 (to JV) co-financed by Programa Operativo FEDER 2014- 2020 and Consejeria de Salud grant PI-0276-2018 (to JAGL).Acknowledgments: J.A.G.L has been supported by a contract of doctor reincorporation plan from the I Plan Propio of the University of Malaga (Spain) and by CIBERNED. This study was supported by Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCiii) of Spain, cofinanced by FEDER funds from European Union, through grants PI18/01557 (to AG), PI18/01556 (to JV), and CIBERNED (CB06/05/1116 to AG and CB06/05/0094 to JV); by Junta de Andalucia through Consejería de Economía y Conocimiento grants UMA18-FEDERJA-211 (to AG), PY18-RT-2233 (to AG) and US-1262734 (to JV) co-financed by Programa Operativo FEDER 2014- 2020 and Consejeria de Salud grant PI-0276-2018 (to JAGL). Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech.

Acknowledgments: This study was supported by Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCiii) of Spain, co-financed by FEDER funds from European Union, through grants PI18/01557 (to AG), PI18/01556 (to JV), and CIBERNED (CB06/05/1116 to AG and CB06/05/0094 to JV); by Junta de Andalucia through Consejería de Economía y Conocimiento grants UMA18-FEDERJA-211 (to AG), PY18-RT-2233 (to AG) and US-1262734 (to JV) co-financed by Programa Operativo FEDER 2014-2020 and Consejeria de Salud grant PI-0276-2018 (to JAGL). ; Oligodendrocytes (OLs) are highly specialized cells of the central nervous system responsible for myelin production and metabolic support of neurons. Defects in OLs are crucial in several neurodegenerative diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Scarce access to primary samples and lack of efficient protocols to generate OLs from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) are hampering our understanding of OL biology and the development of novel therapies. To promote the conversion of hPSCs into OLs, we have screened for a number of transcription factors (TFs) previously reported to be involved in OL generation. We found that the overexpression of SOX10 was sufficient to generate O4+ oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) from hPSCs only 10 days after SOX10 induction. Generated OPCs expressed mature OL proteins as MBP or MOG. At the transcriptome level, generated OPCs resembled primary OPCs. To test the functionality of generated OPCs, O4+ cells were co-cultured together with neurons, finding that O4+ cells were able to myelinate the neurons. Moreover, O4+ cells were injected intracerebrally in newborn shiverer RAG2-/- mice, finding that generated OLs extended within the corpus callosum and generated functional myelin, demonstrating the functionality of generated cells also in vivo. The protocol also describes an alternative for viral transduction, by incorporating an inducible SOX10 in the safe harbor locus AAVS1, yielding ~100% pure OPCs. O4+ OPCs can be co-cultured with maturing hPSC-derived neurons in 96/384-well- format plates, allowing the screening of pro-myelinating compounds. We have developed a novel methodology for a fast (20 days from hPSC stage) and efficient generation of functional OLs, which allow testing of compounds involved in myelination. This technology will allow further studies to better understand human OL biology and the screening of potential compounds involved in myelination in a human setting. ; Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech.

Most neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by a complex and mostly still unresolved pathology. This fact, together with the lack of reliable models, have precluded the development of effective therapies counteracting the disease progression. In the past few years, several studies have evidenced that lack of proper functionality of glial cells (astrocytes, microglia and oligodendrocytes) has a key role in the pathology of several neurodegenerative conditions including Alzheimer´s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis among others. However, this glial dysfunction is poorly modelled by available animal models, and we hypothesize that patientderived cells can serve as a better platform where to study this glial dysfunction. In this sense, human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) has revolutionized the field allowing the generation of disease-relevant neural cell types that can be used for disease modelling, drug screening and, possibly, cell transplantation purposes. In the case of the generation of oligodendrocytes (OLs) from hPSCs, we have developed a fast and robust protocol to generate surface antigen O4-positive (O4+) and myelin basic protein-positive OLs from hPSCs in only 22 days, including from patients with multiple sclerosis or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The generated cells resemble primary human OLs at the transcriptome level and can myelinate neurons in vivo. Using in vitro OLneuron co-cultures, effective myelination of neurons can also be demonstrated. This platform is being translated as well to the generation of the other glial cell types, allowing the derivation of patient-specific glial cells where to model disease-specific dysfunction. This methodology can be used for elucidating pathogenic pathways associated with neurodegeneration and to identify therapeutic targets susceptible of drug modulation, contributing to the development of novel and effective drugs for these devastating disorders. ; Universidad de Málaga. Campus de Excelencia Internacional Andalucía Tech. Supported by PI18/01557 (to AG) and P18/1556 (to JV) grants from ISCiii of Spain co-financed by FEDER funds from European Union, and PI-0276-2018 grant (to JAGL) from Consejeria de Salud of Junta de Andalucia. JAGL held a postdoctoral contract from the I Research Plan Propio of the University of Malaga. CV and KE were supported by IWT-SBO-150031-iPSCAF and the Thierry Lathran Foundation grant – ALS-OL, and KN by FWO1166518N

Neuronal loss is the best neuropathological substrate that correlates with cortical atrophy and dementia in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Defective GABAergic neuronal functions may lead to cortical network hyperactivity and aberrant neuronal oscillations and in consequence, generate a detrimental alteration in memory processes. In this study, using immunohistochemical and stereological approaches, we report that the two major and non‐overlapping groups of inhibitory interneurons (SOM‐cells and PV‐cells) displayed distinct vulnerability in the perirhinal cortex of APP/PS1 mice and AD patients. SOM‐positive neurons were notably sensitive and exhibited a dramatic decrease in the perirhinal cortex of 6‐month‐old transgenic mice (57% and 61% in areas 36 and 35, respectively) and, most importantly, in AD patients (91% in Braak V–VI cases). In addition, this interneuron degenerative process seems to occur in parallel, and closely related, with the progression of the amyloid pathology. However, the population expressing PV was unaffected in APP/PS1 mice while in AD brains suffered a pronounced and significant loss (69%). As a key component of cortico‐hippocampal networks, the perirhinal cortex plays an important role in memory processes, especially in familiarity‐based memory recognition. Therefore, disrupted functional connectivity of this cortical region, as a result of the early SOM and PV neurodegeneration, might contribute to the altered brain rhythms and cognitive failures observed in the initial clinical phase of AD patients. Finally, these findings highlight the failure of amyloidogenic AD models to fully recapitulate the selective neuronal degeneration occurring in humans. ; This study was supported by Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCiii) of Spain, co‐financed by FEDER funds from European Union, through grants PI18/01557 (to AG) and PI18/01556 (to JV), and CIBERNED (to AG and JV), by Consejería de Economía, Innovación, Ciencia y Empleo, Junta de Andalucia Proyecto de Excelencia (CTS‐2035) (to JV and AG); by Malaga University grant PPIT.UMA.B1.2017/26 (to RSV). CND and JJFV were supported by FPI (Junta Andalucía) and FPU (Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities) PhD fellowships, respectively. MMO held a Garantia Juvenil (Junta Andalucia) contract. RSV and JAGL held a postdoctoral contract from the University of Malaga, and AGA from CIBERNED. ; Peer reviewed

Alzheimer's disease (AD) constitutes the most prominent form of dementia among elderly individuals worldwide. Disease modeling using murine transgenic mice was first initiated thanks to the discovery of heritable mutations in amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilins (PS) genes. However, due to the repeated failure of translational applications from animal models to human patients, along with the recent advances in genetic susceptibility and our current understanding on disease biology, these models have evolved over time in an attempt to better reproduce the complexity of this devastating disease and improve their applicability. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview about the major pathological elements of human AD (plaques, tauopathy, synaptic damage, neuronal death, neuroinflammation and glial dysfunction), discussing the knowledge that available mouse models have provided about the mechanisms underlying human disease. Moreover, we highlight the pros and cons of current models, and the revolution offered by the concomitant use of transgenic mice and omics technologies that may lead to a more rapid improvement of the present modeling batter ; This research was funded by INSTITUTO DE SALUD CARLOS III (ISCiii) of Spain, cofinanced by FEDER funds from European Union, through grants PI21/00915 (to AG) and PI21/00914 (to JV); by JUNTA DE ANDALUCIA CONSEJERÍA DE ECONOMÍA Y CONOCIMIENTO through grants UMA18-FEDERJA-211 (to AG), UMA20-FEDERJA-104 (to IMG), P18-RT-2233 (to AG) and US-1262734 (to JV) co-financed by Programa Operativo FEDER 2014–2020 and CONSEJERIA DE SALUD grant PI-0276-2018 (to JAGL); by SPANISH MINISTER OF SCIENCE AND INNOVATION grant PID2019-108911RA-100 (to DBV), BEATRIZ GALINDO PROGRAM BAGAL18/00052 (to DBV), Alzheimer Association AARG-22-928219 (to DBV), grant PID2019-107090RA-100 (to IMG) and RAMON Y CAJAL PROGRAM RYC-2017-21879 (to IMG); and by MALAGA UNIVERSITY grant B1-2019_07 (to ESM), grant B1-2020_04 (to JAGL), grant B1-2019_06 (to IMG) and NASARD grant 27565 2018 (to ...