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Recent protests by athletes focused on raising awareness of social issues and injustices, such as the Black Lives Matter protests led by Colin Kaepernick of the National Football League's San Francisco 49ers, have generated a great deal of attention and debate within society. Notably, the protests conducted by these players before games in the 2016 and 2017 seasons became such a sensational topic, that extraordinary amounts of attention was paid to it by the media, consumers, and even politicians who often denounced the players as being unpatriotic. Against this backdrop, the current research examines whether fluctuations in attendance at National Football League games are associated with explicit attitudes towards race, implicit racial prejudice, and racial animus within a population. Specifically, using multiple measures of racial attitudes as part of an econometric model estimating attendance at games, the results suggest that having a higher level of implicit bias in a market leads to a decline in consumer interest in attending games. Additionally, using interaction effects, it is found that while protests generally reduced the negative effects of implicit bias on attendance, markets with lower levels of implicit bias actually had greater declines of attendance during the protests. From this, the current study advances the understanding of racial attitudes and racial animus, and its impact on consumer behavior at the regional level. That is, this research highlights that racial sentiments in a local market were able to predict changes in market behaviors, suggesting that race relations can have wide reaching impacts.

Miles and Snow's typology of strategic types — prospectors, defenders, analyzers, and reactors — was used to identify different organizational strategies within intercollegiate athletics in the United States. Specifically, in order to examine the relationship between strategy and organizational outcomes, namely, (a) athletic achievement, (b) student-athlete graduation rates, and (c) compliance with Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Division I athletic directors ( N = 172) were surveyed by mail. The majority of the departments (55.8%) used an analyzer strategy. Analyses indicated that prospector departments had the best athletic achievement, prospector and defender departments had higher graduation rates than analyzers, and defender departments were most compliant with Title IX. Results demonstrate the importance of examining the multidimensional nature of organizational effectiveness in relation to organizational strategy.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether anti-transgender rights legislation among state legislators is associated with increased suicide- and depression-related Internet searches. Employing a quasi-experimental non-equivalent control group design, we focused on bills that were introduced to state legislatures from July 2019 to July 2020. As our panel is constructed of 51 states/territories over a 52-week time frame, our final dataset is composed of 2,652 observations. Results showed that states' passing of anti-transgender rights bills were linked with suicide- and depression-related Internet searches. Second, introducing or debating the bills did not have an association with Internet searches. Third, the defeat of anti-transgender bills was linked with fewer depression-related searches. Finally, the LGBT context in the state affected the results: anti-transgender legislation had a particularly strong association with suicide-related Internet searches when the state had a high LGBT population density.

BACKGROUND: Wearing a protective face covering can reduce the spread of COVID-19, but Americans' compliance with wearing a mask is uneven. The purpose of this study is to examine the association between health determinants (Health Behaviors, Clinical Care, Social and Economic Conditions, and the Physical Environment) and mask wearing at the county level. METHODS: Data were collected from publicly available sources, including the County Health Rankings and the New York Times. The dependent variable was the percent of county residents who reported frequently or always wearing a mask when in public. County demographics and voting patterns served as controls. Two-levels random effects regression models were used to examine the study hypotheses. RESULTS: Results indicate that, after considering the effects of the controls, Health Behaviors were positively associated with mask wearing, the Physical Environment held a negative association, and Clinical Care and Social and Behavioral Factors were unrelated. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that patterns of healthy behaviors can help predict compliance with public health mandates that can help reduce the spread of COVID-19. From an instutitional theory perspective, the data suggest counties develop collective values and norms around health. Thus, public health officials can seek to alter governance structures and normative behaviors to improve healthy behaviors.

Women's participation in sports and physical activities lags behind that of men, particularly among members of underrepresented or marginalized groups. Pakistani women from the rural areas of southern Punjab represent one such group. The aim of this study was to examine how traditional sports that are less well-known outside the Indian subcontinent offer opportunities for marginalized Pakistani women from Southern Punjab to participate in physical activities. Following a phenomenological approach, we conducted 16 semi-structured interviews with Kho-Kho and Kabaddi women athletes from underrepresented groups in Pakistan. Elo and Kyngäs' three-phase content analysis process (preparation, organization and reporting) was used to examine interviews. The results of the study revealed that participants feel constrained by the systematic masculine hegemonic culture institutionalized by Pakistani society and the western sporting paradigm. However, the participants reported a sense of liberation and security via traditional sports. Our study contributes to the limited knowledge about women's participation in traditional sports beyond the western world.

This study examines the factors that can be associated with social justice advocacy in the field of sport and explains why the activists get involved in the social justice advocacy. The authors implemented a phenomenological research approach, interviewing 12 active social justice activists. In drawing from Moeschberger et al.'s model for awareness and engagement, the authors suggest a congruent definition of social justice advocacy, explain how the participants learned about social injustice ( direct experience, indirect experience, and indirect contact), identify three major themes ( increased awareness, atypical experience, and emotional response) for the involvement in social justice advocacy, and describe what activities the participants get engaged in ( raising awareness and changing attitude, engaging in activity, and encouraging others). The results of this study provide more in-depth understanding of social justice advocacy in the field of sport.

The purpose of this study was to examine the representation of racial minorities in intercollegiate coaching positions. Data were gathered from 191 NCAA Division I men's basketball programs (60% of all programs). Results indicate that White head coaches were more likely than were Black head coaches to have White assistant coaches on staff and vice versa. Results further indicate that the proportion of Black assistant coaches (33%) was significantly less than the proportion of potential Black coaches (48%). Further, the race of the head coach moderated this relationship as Blacks were significantly underrepresented on the coaching staffs of White head coaches (30%) but not of Black head coaches (45%). It is suggested that the key to mitigating access discrimination is for coaches and administrators to realize the value ofdiversityandtheimportanceofadiverseworkforceontheultimateeffectiveness of the workgroup and organization.

The purpose of the current study was to examine how head coach–player racial dissimilarity was associated with negative treatment from the head coach. Data were collected from 212 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I women's basketball players (124 Whites, 88 African Americans). Results indicate that racial dissimilarity was associated with greater incivility when the head coach was White, but not when the head coach was African American. In addition, incivility was negatively associated with players' commitment to the team. The authors discuss theoretical contributions and practical implications.