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Sentinel plantations are a promising tool to collect valuable information on plant-pathogen interactions. While it has proven its efficiency to discover new significant threatening organisms (Kenis et al., 2018; Vettraino et al., 2017), this technique has also the potential to identify new host plants for known pathogens. The objective of this study was to investigate the susceptibility of selected Belgian potential host plant species to Xylella fastidiosa by establishing and monitoring ex-patria plantings (EPPO 2020) in a Xylella-contaminated area, the campus of the University of the Balearic Islands (UIB) situated in Palma de Mallorca. First, official approval was obtained from the local government and from the UIB Authorities. Then, selected plant species (Prunus domestica cv. opal, Salix alba, Quercus petraea), were acquired from Belgian producers. Although they were provided with phytosanitary certificates, they were also checked for X. fastidiosa before 27 plants of each species were brought to Spain and planted in March 2018. Later on, they were regularly submitted to regular symptom observations and molecular analyses. Simultaneously, within a 100 meters radius area around the plantation, the abundance and the infectivity of the potential insect vectors, as well as the sanitary state of the local vegetation, were monitored. The survey is still ongoing. So far, no infection by X. fastidiosa has been observed, possibly due to the young age of the trees and the recent establishment of the assay, as well as to the scarcity of the ground herbaceous vegetation and vectors during the first year. This study underlines the hurdles that may be encountered with sentinel plants. Yet it provides a methodology highlighting key features to address X. fastidiosa studies through sentinel plantations. Reference : European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) (2020). PM 3/91(1) Sentinel woody plants: concepts and application. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin, 50(3), 429–436. Kenis, M., Li, H., Fan, J. T., ...

The trade in plants for planting is a major pathway for the introduction and further spread of alien plants, pests and diseases. Information about the structure of plant trade networks is not generally available, but it is valuable for better assessing the potential risks associated with the trade in live plants and the development of prevention and mitigation measures and policy. The discovery of two larvae of Anoplophora chinensis (citrus longhorn beetle – CLB) in 2009, at a nursery importing Acer palmatum from China in one of the major Dutch tree nursery areas, has resulted in the creation of a detailed dataset on the intra-European Union trade in its potential hosts. This study describes European imports of the primary host of A. chinensis, Acer spp., into the Netherlands (1998-2012) and the effects of the finding in a tree nursery area. In addition, shipments of Acer spp. from 138 producers in the nursery area in 2009 were analysed in a one-off analysis of intra-EU trade. The volume of Acer spp. imports from Asia was stable early during the studied period, and declined to 5% of the initial imports after a period of interceptions, illustrating the effect of regulations. The number of notifications of A. chinensis infestations in imported consignments of Acer spp. increased sharply in the years up to 2007, then declined as imports also reduced. Although plants were shipped to destinations throughout Europe, each producer shipped plants only to few destinations in few countries. Most of the plants were shipped to nurseries in EU countries. These patterns could make it easier to target these high risk destinations for control measures. The lack of transaction records makes it difficult to trace the destination of plants. More systematic electronic record keeping by traders and growers and the data being collated in a database that can be made available to regulatory authorities, together with further studies of plant trade data using network approaches, would be beneficial for improving trace-back and trace-forward and provide better safeguards for plant health and quality.

Phytosanitary import inspections are important to avoid entry of harmful pests on live plants. In the European Union (EU), all consignments of live plants must be inspected at the first point of entry, and plants allowed entry can be moved without further inspection among the 28 Member States and Switzerland. It is important that inspections in EU countries adhere to the same standard to avoid introduction of harmful organisms through countries with weaker methods. We tested whether sampling intensity and confidence in the inspection results were the same across these countries. Questionnaires were sent to inspectors in all countries, asking about inspections of individual consignments of woody plants for planting. Data about 102 lots, inspected at 13 points of entry in six countries, were analyzed. We used hypergeometric and binomial statistics for small and large consignments, respectively, to calculate the probability that <1 % of the plants were infested. The duration of the inspection increased with lot size, but the probability that the infestation level was below 1 % of the plants was lower for small than for large lots. Moreover, large international differences in inspection intensity and the probability that the inspections could detect a level of infestation below 1 % were found: the probability was consistently above 0.95 in one country, while the average probability was below 0.6 in the other countries. We suggest that the EU Member States adopt common maximum acceptable infestation levels and harmonized, statistics-based sampling protocols for plants for planting. ; SCOPUS: ar.j ; info:eu-repo/semantics/published

The trade in plants for planting is a major pathway for the introduction and further spread of alien plants, pests and diseases. Information about the structure of plant trade networks is not generally available, but it is valuable for better assessing the potential risks associated with the trade in live plants and the development of prevention and mitigation measures and policy. The discovery of two larvae of Anoplophora chinensis (citrus longhorn beetle – CLB) in 2009, at a nursery importing Acer palmatum from China in one of the major Dutch tree nursery areas, has resulted in the creation of a detailed dataset on the intra- European Union trade in its potential hosts. This study describes European imports of the primary host of A. chinensis, Acer spp., into the Netherlands (1998-2012) and the effects of the finding in a tree nursery area. In addition, shipments of Acer spp. from 138 producers in the nursery area in 2009 were analysed in a one-off analysis of intra-EU trade. The volume of Acer spp. imports from Asia was stable early during the studied period, and declined to 5% of the initial imports after a period of interceptions, illustrating the effect of regulations. The number of notifications of A. chinensis infestations in imported consignments of Acer spp. increased sharply in the years up to 2007, then declined as imports also reduced. Although plants were shipped to destinations throughout Europe, each producer shipped plants only to few destinations in few countries. Most of the plants were shipped to nurseries in EU countries. These patterns could make it easier to target these high risk destinations for control measures. The lack of transaction records makes it difficult to trace the destination of plants. More systematic electronic record keeping by traders and growers and the data being collated in a database that can be made available to regulatory authorities, together with further studies of plant trade data using network approaches, would be beneficial for improving trace-back and trace-forward and provide better safeguards for plant health and quality.

The trade in plants for planting is a major pathway for the introduction and further spread of alien plants, pests and diseases. Information about the structure of plant trade networks is not generally available, but it is valuable for better assessing the potential risks associated with the trade in live plants and the development of prevention and mitigation measures and policy. The discovery of two larvae of Anoplophora chinensis (citrus longhorn beetle – CLB) in 2009, at a nursery importing Acer palmatum from China in one of the major Dutch tree nursery areas, has resulted in the creation of a detailed dataset on the intra-European Union trade in its potential hosts. This study describes European imports of the primary host of A. chinensis, Acer spp., into the Netherlands (1998-2012) and the effects of the finding in a tree nursery area. In addition, shipments of Acer spp. from 138 producers in the nursery area in 2009 were analysed in a one-off analysis of intra-EU trade. The volume of Acer spp. imports from Asia was stable early during the studied period, and declined to 5% of the initial imports after a period of interceptions, illustrating the effect of regulations. The number of notifications of A. chinensis infestations in imported consignments of Acer spp. increased sharply in the years up to 2007, then declined as imports also reduced. Although plants were shipped to destinations throughout Europe, each producer shipped plants only to few destinations in few countries. Most of the plants were shipped to nurseries in EU countries. These patterns could make it easier to target these high risk destinations for control measures. The lack of transaction records makes it difficult to trace the destination of plants. More systematic electronic record keeping by traders and growers and the data being collated in a database that can be made available to regulatory authorities, together with further studies of plant trade data using network approaches, would be beneficial for improving trace-back and ...

The aim of this paper is to define a conceptual framework for agroecology. There are two components to our approach. The first one proposes an analysis of what agroecology encompasses today, how its definition evolved, and in which sociohistorical contexts it emerged and is currently developing. The second one sets the outlines of agroecology's interdisciplinary approach. This entails a set of principles that should guide research in support of the development of agroecology and a series of medium-term prospects for research in the European context. This paper's ultimate aim is to set a working framework. As such, it is also an invitation to have the various scientific communities concerned by the subject take part in dialogue with each other, with the agricultural professions and public administrations so as to allow for the diversity of practices involved, and with civil society and political circles. ; Cette contribution est un papier de positionnement « sur » et « pour » l'agroécologie. Il est le produit des réflexions menées au sein du groupe GIRAF, Groupe Interdisciplinaire de Recherche en Agroécologie du FNRS belge, depuis 2009. Ce groupe rassemble neuf chercheurs provenant de l'Université catholique de Louvain (UCL), l'Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), l'Université de Liège (ULg) ainsi que de l'Université de Gand (UGent) et du Centre Wallon de Recherches agronomiques (CRA-W). Notre approche est constituée de deux composantes. La première propose une analyse de ce qu'est l'agroécologie aujourd'hui comment sa définition a évolué et dans quel contexte socio-historique elle a émergé et se développe actuellement. La seconde définit les lignes de forces d'une approche interdisciplinaire de l'agroécologie. Celles-ci comprennent d'une part une série de principes qui devraient guider la recherche en support au développement de l'agroécologie et d'autre part une série de perspectives thématiques à moyen terme dans le contexte européen. L'intention de ce papier est de définir un cadre de travail. A ce titre, il est également une invitation au dialogue au sein des différentes communautés scientifiques concernées, avec la profession agricole et les administrations publiques dans la diversité de leurs pratiques ainsi qu'avec la société civile et le monde politique. ; Peer reviewed

Sentinel plants, plants in exporting countries that are inspected at regular intervals for signs and symptoms of invertebrate pests and microbial pathogens, are a promising tool for detecting and identifying harmful organisms of woody plants prior to their introduction into importing countries. Monitoring of sentinel plants reveals crucial information for pest risk analyses and the development of mitigation measures. The establishment of sentinel plants requires the import and plantation of non-native plants, which may be affected by the laws, regulations and administrative procedures in the individual countries. To evaluate the feasibility of sentinel plants as a global approach, this study aimed to summarise regulations and administrative procedures that affect the establishment of sentinel plants using non-native plants in countries worldwide. Information about national regulations of import and planting of non-native plant species was collected through a questionnaire survey, conducted among national representatives to the International Plant Protection Convention. Over 40 countries responded. The results show that legislations and regulations should not be major obstacles for a global use of the sentinel plants approach. However, the few existing experiences show that it can be complicated in practice. Here we describe the current state of art of the procedures that should be adopted to establish sentinel plants and we propose a strategy to circumvent the shortcomings resulting from the lack of a specific regulation. ; SCOPUS: ar.j ; info:eu-repo/semantics/published

A new method for pest risk assessment and the identification and evaluation of risk-reducing options is currently under development by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Plant Health Panel. The draft method has been tested on pests of concern to the European Union (EU). The method is adaptable and can focus either on all the steps and sub-steps of the assessment process or on specific parts if necessary. It is based on assessing changes in pest population abundance as the major driver of the impact on cultivated plants and on the environment. Like other pest risk assessment systems the method asks questions about the likelihood and magnitude of factors that contribute to risk. Responses can be based on data or expert judgment. Crucially, the approach is quantitative, and it captures uncertainty through the provision by risk assessors of quantile estimates of the probability distributions for the assessed variables and parameters. The assessment is based on comparisons between different scenarios, and the method integrates risk-reducing options where they apply to a scenario, for example current regulation against a scenario where risk-reducing options are not applied. A strategy has been developed to communicate the results of the risk assessment in a clear, comparable and transparent way, with the aim of providing the requestor of the risk assessment with a useful answer to the question(s) posed to the EFSA Plant Health Panel. The method has been applied to four case studies, two fungi, Ceratocystis platani and Cryphonectria parasitica, the nematode Ditylenchus destructor and the Grapevine flavescence dorée phytoplasma. Selected results from these case studies illustrate the types of output that the method can deliver. ; SCOPUS: ar.j ; info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Following a request from the European Commission (EC), the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) initiated a procedure for the evaluation of data supporting the necessity of the application of insecticide active substances to control a serious danger to plant health within the context of Article 4(7) of Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009. EFSA established an ad hoc working group (WG) who proposed a methodology for conducting this type of evaluation. The draft protocol was circulated among European Union Member States (MS) for commenting. The aim of this protocol is to enable a consistent and transparent evaluation of submissions made by applicants in accordance with the derogation detailed in Article 4(7) of Regulation (EU) No 1107/2009 to confirm the lack of other available means capable of controlling an identified serious danger to plant health. All the evaluations are made for each specific crop/pest combination separately for which a derogation is requested. Usually, derogation for the use of an insecticide active substance is not scientifically supported if an alternative control programme not requiring the application of an insecticide can manage the specific crop/pest combination under consideration, or if another active substance with the same mode of action (IRAC) as the active substance under consideration is available. If these conditions are not verified, the process moves to the evaluation of: 1) the risk of resistance associated to the different mode of action of all active substances that are authorised in the MS; 2) the risk of resistance associated to the different pests; 3) the availability of non-insecticide alternatives.

Following a request from the European Commission, in this scientific opinion the EFSA Panel on Plant Health evaluates the risk of entry into the European Union of harmful organisms associated with soil or growing medium attached to plants for planting, as commodities, and as contaminants on imported consignments. The Panel compared several definitions of soil and growing media and used, in this opinion, the current definition for growing media of the International Plant Protection Convention. In Council Directive 2000/29/EC, no specific definition of soil and growing media is provided but growing media are described in two different ways. From the soil and growing media and/or components thereof identified through extensive literature searches, the Panel distinguished eight groups of soil and growing media and assessed the probability of association of these groups with harmful organisms. A total of 207 scientific publications were reviewed by the Panel in order to identify and rate the effectiveness of options that could reduce the risk of entry of pests posed by the import of soil and growing media. A detailed description and evaluation of the requirements for soil and growing media laid down in current EU legislation on plant health and in a few other regions of the world is provided. The Panel found that the 'prohibition of import' is the only phytosanitary measure with a very high effectiveness and a low uncertainty. The effectiveness of the phytosanitary measures 'pest free production site and preparation of consignment' is rated as moderate to high with an uncertainty rated as medium to high. Although several phytosanitary measures in these categories of risk reduction options could be highly effective, EU legislation does not provide clear formulation and guidance on their implementation.

The EFSA Panel on Plant Health was requested by the European Commission to assess the risk to plant health in 8the European Union if the Australian bud-galling wasp Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae was released for the 9control of the invasive alien plant Acacia longifolia in Portugal. T. acaciaelongifoliae feeds on A. longifolia and 10A. floribunda. In South Africa, following its intentional introduction in 1982 and 1983, the wasp is now present 11throughout the range of A. longifolia in that country, with most plants showing galls and seed set reductions of, 12initially, up to 95 %. Climatic conditions in the EU are largely suitable for establishment wherever A. longifolia13and A. floribunda are present. T. acaciaelongifoliae is moderately likely to establish and spread in the EU, by 14natural means, but particularly if it is intentionally moved to control populations of A. longifolia other than those 15present in Portugal. The effects on native biodiversity and ecosystems resulting from invasive populations of 16A. longifolia are likely to be reduced by the wasp. A. longifolia is grown as an ornamental plant in some EU 17countries. A. floribunda is not an invasive plant in the EU and is cultivated as an ornamental plant on a small 18scale in France, Greece and Italy. Any effects on cultivated ornamental A. longifolia and A. floribunda a re rated 19as moderate, although likely to be transient, as the industry could switch to the cultivation of other Acacia spp. 20For plant species other than A. longifolia and A. floribunda, consequences are expected to be minor, with low 21uncertainty except for A. retinodes and Cytisus striatus, where further investigation is required. No risk-reducing 22options in the plant health context are considered necessary, except for monitoring, sentinel planting, and care 23with regard to quarantine facilities and release protocols to prevent accidental release in situations and locations 24other than those intended

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Plant Health (EFSA PLH Panel) was asked to react to a document entitled "Comments on the European Union Food Safety Authority's Pest Risk Assessment for Phyllosticta citricarpa", authored by Hattingh et al., which was posted online in August 2014 on the website of Citrus Research International (Pty) Ltd, South Africa. Citrus black spot (CBS), caused by the fungus Phyllosticta citricarpa (McAlpine) Van der Aa, is a fruit-blemishing and leaf-spotting disease affecting citrus. P. citricarpa is not known to occur in the EU territory and is regulated as a quarantine organism in citrus (Council Directive 2000/29/EC). The Panel assessed the comments by Hattingh et al. in the light of the content of the EFSA PLH Panel Scientific Opinion on CBS and the EFSA report detailing responses to comments received during the public consultation on the draft opinion. The Panel stands by the EFSA PLH Panel Scientific Opinion on CBS and considers that the comments by Hattingh et al. have been thoroughly addressed in the EFSA report on the public consultation on the EFSA PLH Panel Scientific Opinion on CBS. A detailed point by point reply to the comments by Hattingh et al. is provided in an Appendix of this Panel statement. Since September 2014, EFSA has written to the lead author of the comments trying to engage in a scientific dialogue concerning the sources of uncertainty related to the risks posed by P. citricarpa to plant health in the EU, so as to identify ways to reduce such uncertainties (e.g. with further research and/or data exchange). The EFSA PLH Panel also remains open to such constructive dialogue in the future.

The Panel on Plant Health undertook a pest categorisation for the scale insect Aonidiella citrina for the European Union. A. citrina is a distinct species, but examination with a microscope is required to distinguish it from A. aurantii, which is also a citrus pest originating from Asia, but is much more widespread in southern Europe and far more damaging than A. citrina. A. citrina was first found in Europe in 1994 but has been recorded only in Italy, France and Greece. It is primarily a citrus pest, but has been found in association with a variety of other plant genera. Southern areas of the EU, where citrus plants are cultivated, are potentially suitable for outdoor establishment of A. citrina. The pest has not been recorded in protected cultivation. No serious impacts of A. citrina have been recorded in Europe, and an integrated pest management programme, combining chemical and biological controls, is considered to be effective. A. citrina is an insect listed in Annex IIAI of Council Directive 2000/29/EC in relation to its main hosts: Citrus, Fortunella and Poncirus plants. These hosts are also regulated in Annex III and Annex V and are explicitly mentioned in Council Directive 2008/90/EC.

The European Commission requested the EFSA Panel on Plant Health to perform a pest categorisation of Atropellis spp., the fungal pathogens responsible for causing cankers in several Pinus species. The pathogens are listed in Annex IIAI of Directive 2000/29/EC. The pathogens have been identified as A. apiculata, A. pinicola, A. piniphila and A. tingens. Detection, identification and differentiation of Atropellis species is based on their morphological and cultural characteristics. A. apiculata is present in North Carolina and Virginia (USA), and A. pinicola, A. piniphila and A. tingens are present in Canada and the USA. Atropellis spp. are not known to occur in the EU Member States so far. Several Pinus species have been reported to be hosts of Atropellis spp., with some of them being present in the EU Member States. However, the susceptibility to infection with these pathogens of pine species native to Europe and Eurasia, such as Pinus brutia, P. cembra, P. mugo, P. peuce, P. pinaster and P. sibiricais not yet known. There are no obvious eco-climatic factors limiting the potential establishment and spread of the pathogens in the risk assessment area. The pathogens can spread over short distances by ascospores that are dispersed primarily by wind and secondarily by rain. Spread of Atropellis spp. over long distances may occur by means of movement of infected host plants for planting (especially asymptomatic), cut branches, and wood or isolated bark. Control methods used against Atropellis spp. include cultural practices and sanitary measures. No chemical control measures, resistant host genotypes or biological control measures exist. Potential consequences of the damage caused by Atropellis spp. include malformation of the trees resulting in lower wood quality or tree marketability.