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Abstract
Variationist studies have shown the implication of tie properties in the emergence and preservation of linguistic norms. This contribution deepens the understanding of this mechanism at the dyadic level. It explores relational subjectivity and relativity among individuals of a community and their implications in the distribution of lexical variants. The aim is to understand how the reciprocity of a relation influences the share of lexical practices. To do so, we analyze the network of discussions of bachelor's degree students of the University of Geneva and their lexical practices. Using the modern methods used in social network analysis to study relational properties and by running multiple regression quadratic assignment procedure (MRQAP), reciprocal interactions are found to lead to a higher lexical share and similarity.

This paper reviews current trade–related regulations of genetically modified (GM) food and discusses their effects on developing countries. There is a large heterogeneity in current import approval and marketing policies of GM food worldwide. At the international level, the harmonization efforts are led by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety and the World Trade Organization. While internationally harmonized guidelines for safety approval have been finalized, we show that there is no clear consensus on labeling regulations for GM food, and there is an increasing risk of conflicts among international agreements. We analyze the GM food regulations of two large rich importers, Japan and the European Union (EU) and discuss their differences and their potential impact on international trade. We also show that the effects of international and domestic trade related regulations critically depend on the type of traded products and their intended use: food and unprocessed products are subject to more stringent regulations than animal feed and processed products. Finally, we identify the main spillover effects of national and international regulations on developing countries' policy making, and suggest four policy arrangements on GM food to enable developing countries to satisfy production, consumption, international trade, and risk management objectives simultaneously while complying with their international obligations. ; Non-PR ; IFPRI1; Theme 10; Subtheme 10.1; GRP1; GRP34; Subtheme 10.3; Pro-poor science and technology policies; Markets and Trade; PBS ; EPTD

Several genetically modified (GM) food crops have reached an advanced stage in the research and regulatory pipeline in India. The government of India is in the process of introducing a mandatory labeling policy for GM food. It is timely to study the likely economic impact of introducing such a labeling policy. This study aims to assess the economic implications of implementing a mandatory labeling policy on two products, brinjal and rice, that are likely to be commercialized in the near future.

AbstractA computable general equilibrium model is applied to evaluate the opportunity costs of not adopting Bt cotton, a genetically‐modified (GM) insect resistant cotton, in Benin, Burkina‐Faso, Mali, Senegal, Togo, Tanzania, and Uganda when it is adopted in other countries. Our model uniquely employs country‐specific partial adoption rates and factor‐biased productivity shocks in the cotton and oilseed sectors of all adopting regions. Assuming a 50% adoption rate, the opportunity cost of not adopting Bt cotton in the seven surveyed countries amounts to $41 million per year, which is a significant but lower cost than that suggested by the results of previous studies. Trade liberalization only marginally increases this estimate.

In 2006, India proposed a draft rule requiring the labeling of all genetically modified (GM) foods and products derived thereof. In this paper, we use primary and secondary market data to assess the economic implications of introducing such a mandatory labeling policy for GM food. We focus on four products that would likely be the first affected by such a regulation in India: cottonseed oil, soybean oil, brinjal (eggplant), and rice. We find that GM food labeling would generate a specific market outcome for each of these products. With GM labeling, virtually all cottonseed oil would be labeled as GM, with limited costs for all actors involved, but also limited benefit for consumers. Labeling soybean oil derived from GM crops could affect market shares for edible oils at the benefit of domestic oils, and non-GM soybean oil could appear on the market at a very limited scale. Labeling GM brinjal would be extremely challenging. Assuming it was implemented, some non-GM brinjal would be sold at a premium in high-income retail outlets, while virtually all others would be labeled GM. A similar outcome would occur for rice, with high-quality rice used for both domestic consumption and exports markets certified non-GM and most of the remaining rice labeled as GM. In each of the cases, labeling would generate significant adjustment costs for the industry and large enforcement costs, and consumer benefit would not always be visible and would highly depend on the degree of enforcement. In fact, voluntary labeling could achieve less-distorted results with lower costs and therefore appears to be a superior regulatory solution. Still, provided enforcement is ensured, a well-designed mandatory labeling regulation with limited product coverage, a non-zero labeling threshold, and an informative labeling content would lead to a much better outcome and lower costs in India than the current draft rule, especially if it is accompanied by a large awareness campaign regarding GM food and consumer safety in India. ; Non-PR ; IFPRI1; GRP1 ; EPTD

This study investigates the implications of implementing information requirements under the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety's Article 18.2.a in Kenya. It also assesses the challenges associated with the upcoming introduction of import regulations for genetically modified (GM) food in a country that largely imports and transports grain in East Africa. The analysis shows that Kenya has been importing GM grains for the past few years and that border control under pending regulation will be difficult and costly. While the Protocol's information requirement's "may contain" option does not require too much effort, implementing the strict "does contain" option will significantly increase the cost of trade and potentially the price of grains in Kenya. These results suggest that a regional approach to import control is necessary, and that Kenya should reconsider its support to the "does contain" option of the Protocol.

Une étude théorique de la propriété d'« invariance canonique » de certains hamiltoniens, et des conséquences quant à la nature des solutions des équations différentielles correspondantes est développée dans la première partie ; la deuxième est consacrée aux applications de cette théorie au problème restreint des trois corps dans quelques systèmes de coordonnées intéressants, utilisés dans la littérature.

This paper provides a comprehensive review of existing international labeling policies of genetically modified (GM) food and associated relevant international agreements in order to evaluate India's proposed mandatory labeling rule. Existing evidence from developed countries shows that mandatory labeling regulations have resulted in no additional consumer choice or information. Among the few developing countries with labeling policies, most have not effectively implemented their regulations. We show that India's proposed labeling rules for GM food would be among the most stringent globally and could potentially result in low consumer benefits at a high cost both domestically and internationally. India's proposed regulation also lacks a number of elements to be implemented. However, these conclusions are based on experiences from other countries and limited available information from India. More studies are needed to evaluate the potential economic effects of GM food labeling in India.