Suchergebnisse

Abstract
The exchange of gifts was an important aspect of the relations between the Safavid Empire and the Republic of Venice. Drawing on Venetian archival documents, the article aims to explore the nature and significance of Safavid diplomatic gift-giving to Venice in the first third of the seventeenth century. In particular, it examines the place and importance of precious objects in gift exchanges, looking at specific types of gifts given such as carpets, textiles, and weaponry. The article sheds light on the role religion played in the determination of a Shah's choice of a gift to the Doge. Furthermore, this article examines how the diplomatic gifts from the Safavid rulers were viewed and conceived in Venice. Using a comparative perspective, the article explores the differences between the Safavid gift-giving strategies towards Venice and Ottomans. It reveals that the Safavids and Venetians had a common understanding of what was worthy of giving.

The emergence of the Safavid Empire in the early sixteenth century marked a significant change in the geopolitics of the Middle East. This momentous change coincided with the widening of Ottoman expansion eastward and the exploration by European powers, especially by Venice, of the possibilities of forming alliances against the Ottomans with the involvement of the Safavids. Thus, Ottoman threat and commercial interests contributed to the emergence and development of diplomatic, cultural, and trade relations between the Republic of Venice and the Safavid Empire, which lasted until the end of the seventeenth century. Drawing on the documents from the Venetian State Archives and other contemporary sources, this book focuses mainly on some aspects of Safavid diplomacy, including the language of the Safavid polity, the role of European subjects as interpreters for the shahs, material and visual characteristics of Safavid diplomatic letters to Venice, the attitude of the Safavids towards resident diplomacy, the reception of the European envoys in the Safavid court and Europeans' perception of Safavid diplomatic practices, as well as the characteristics of the Safavid embassies to Venice. We have tried to explain the role of Turkish as a language of diplomacy and communication in Safavid-Venetian encounters. We have also attempted to explore briefly how the Venetians distinguished Safavid subjects according to their ethno-linguistic affiliations. Finally, we examine the Ottoman factor in Safavid-Venetian relations in order to establish to what extent, if any, the Ottomans had an impact on the overall character of Safavid-Venetian relations.

Turkic peoples have considered the number nine as bearing a special mystic significance. In accordance with the ancient Turkic customary practice, the gifts were presented in nines. One of the leading tribes of the Turks was known as the 'Tokuz Oguz', the 'Nine Oghuz'. The mysticism of the number 'nine' is used in The Book of Dedem Korkut. The eleventh-century Turkish poet from Central Asia, Yusuf Balasagunlu, a writer of the epic Kutadgu bilig (The Knowledge of How to Become Happy) compared the sunrise to the appearance of the ruler before whom nine gold-colored banners were carried1. Abu'l Ghazi, an author of Shajarah-iturk divided his work into nine chapters because 'wise men have said: "nothing must exceed the number nine". Ottoman, Mughal and Safavid chroniclers often mention of "nine skies", "nine vaults of heaven". The number 'nine' also played an important role in gift exchanges: it was customary to give presents in groups of nine. Gift-giving and tribute payment in denominations of nine were also recorded by both local and European authors of the late medieval and early modern periods.

Taking a comparative perspective and drawing on the documents from the Venetian State Archives, the paper attempts to examine a ceremonial treatment of the Ottoman and Safavid diplomats in Venice. Both the Ottoman and Safavid envoys usually were graciously received in Venice. However, the degree of the Venetian hospitality was subject to changes and varied in accordance to the importance of the incoming mission and overall nature of its relations with the Ottomans and Safavids. It appears from the receptions of the Ottoman and Safavid diplomats in Venice that during the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the ceremonial positions of the sultan's envoys were equal or mostly above that of the Qızılbaş representatives. As it is evident from the Safavid Asad bey's case in 1600, in its treatment of the Safavid envoys, Venetian government pursued a cautious policy and tried not to antagonize the Ottomans. Furthermore, the Ottoman factor had enduring impact both on the nature and on the dynamics of the Safavid-Venetian relations.

Gift-giving was an important feature of early modern diplomacy and as a tangible expression of goodwill and generosity, it helped build ties and maintain relationships. The gift was not only a sign of goodwill. As means of symbolic communication, diplomatic gifts conveyed political messages. Apart from facilitating diplomatic encounters, diplomatic gifts revealed the relative status of states as well as their political, economic, and cultural intentions. Furthermore, the rulers used such gifts to display their power and wealth. The emergence of the Safavid Empire in the early sixteenth century coincided with the sustained eastward expansion of the Ottoman Empire, and the European powers, especially Venice, explored the possibilities of forming an alliance against the Ottomans with the involvement of the Safavids. The Ottoman threat and mutual commercial interests contributed to the emergence and development of diplomatic, cultural, and trade relations between the Republic of Venice and the Safavid Empire. The Safavid-Venetian diplomatic relationship was generally characterized by its infrequent nature and only the reign of Shah Abbas I (r. 1587–1629) witnessed a relative increase in diplomatic contacts between these states.