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This study traces the evolution of U.S. news media frames of participants in the 2011 Egyptian Revolution, part of the Arab Spring. Critical discourse analysis reveals that CNN.com and FoxNews.com employ frames previously applied to Muslims and the Middle East—U.S. friend/enemy and rational/irrational—to explain the anti-government protesters, president Hosni Mubarak and Mubarak's government, and the Muslim Brotherhood to U.S. audiences. Media frames of certain groups fluctuate during the revolution and between CNN and Fox News, but, overall, these frames predominantly reflect U.S. political ideology that favors people seeking democracy over authoritarian rule and remains wary of Islam.

Artificial intelligence (AI) and people's interactions with it—through virtual agents, socialbots, and language-generation software—do not fit neatly into paradigms of communication theory that have long focused on human–human communication. To address this disconnect between communication theory and emerging technology, this article provides a starting point for articulating the differences between communicative AI and previous technologies and introduces a theoretical basis for navigating these conditions in the form of scholarship within human–machine communication (HMC). Drawing on an HMC framework, we outline a research agenda built around three key aspects of communicative AI technologies: (1) the functional dimensions through which people make sense of these devices and applications as communicators, (2) the relational dynamics through which people associate with these technologies and, in turn, relate to themselves and others, and (3) the metaphysical implications called up by blurring ontological boundaries surrounding what constitutes human, machine, and communication.