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Many study designs in social science research rely on repeated measurements implying that the same respondents are asked the same (or nearly the same) questions at least twice. An assumption made by such study designs is that respondents second answer does not depend on their first answer. However, if respondents recall their initial answer and base their second answer on it memory effects may affect the survey outcome. In this study, I investigate respondents' recall ability and memory effects within the same survey and randomly assign respondents to a device type (PC or smartphone) and a response format (response scale or text field) for reporting their previous answer. While the results reveal no differences regarding device types, they reveal differences regarding response formats. Respondents' recall ability is higher when they are provided with the response scale again than when they are only provided with a text field (without displaying the response scale again). The same finding applies to the size of estimated memory effects. This study provides evidence that the size of memory effects may have been overestimated in previous studies.

The ever-growing number of respondents completing web surveys via smartphones is paving the way for leveraging technological advances to improve respondents' survey experience and, in turn, the quality of their answers. Smartphone surveys enable researchers to incorporate audio and voice features into web surveys, that is, having questions read aloud to respondents using pre-recorded audio files and collecting voice answers via the smartphone's microphone. Moving from written to audio and voice communication channels might be associated with several benefits, such as humanizing the communication process between researchers and respondents. However, little is known about respondents' willingness to undergo this change in communication channels. Replicating and extending earlier research, we examine the extent to which respondents are willing to use audio and voice channels in web surveys, the reasons for their (non)willingness, and respondent characteristics associated with (non)willingness. The results of a web survey conducted in a nonprobability online panel in Germany (N = 2146) reveal that more than 50% of respondents would be willing to have the questions read aloud (audio channel) and about 40% would also be willing to give answers via voice input (voice channel). While respondents mostly name a general openness to new technologies for their willingness, they mostly name preference for written communication for their nonwillingness. Finally, audio and voice channels in smartphone surveys appeal primarily to frequent and competent smartphone users as well as younger and tech-savvy respondents.

Previous research has shown that question characteristics, such as the shape of rating scales, can affect how respondents interpret and respond to questions. For example, earlier studies reported different response distributions for questions employing rating scales in the form of a ladder and in the form of a pyramid. The current experiment, implemented in a probability-based online panel (N = 4,377), re-visits and extends this research by examining how the two graphical layouts (ladder vs. pyramid) affect response behavior and data quality of a question on subjective social stratification. In line with the earlier results, we found that respondents rated their social status lower in the pyramid than in the ladder condition. No differences between the two layouts were found regarding response effort, however, the ladder layout was associated with higher criterion validity. Therefore, we recommend employing the ladder layout when measuring subjective social stratification.

Abstract
It is common practice in behavioral and social sciences to repeat questions, such as in pretest–posttest designs. However, if respondents recall their first answer to a repeated question and use it to decide their second answer, this may cause memory effects, affecting empirical findings. So far, only a few studies have investigated respondents' recall ability and memory effects in surveys. Thus, we conducted an experiment in a probability-based online panel (N = 4,681) where we repeatedly asked a question on political interest. Our results reveal that respondents' recall ability is high and was not reduced by the implementation of memory interference tasks. Memory effects, in contrast, were low (about 7%). They were also not reduced by memory interference tasks.

Abstract
The effects of scale direction on response behavior are well known in the survey literature, where a variety of theoretical approaches are discussed, and mixed empirical findings are reported. In addition, different types of survey completion devices seem to vary in their susceptibility to scale direction effects. In this study, we therefore investigate the effect of scale direction and device type on response behavior in PC and smartphone surveys. To do so, we conducted a web survey experiment in a German non-probability access panel (N = 3,401) using a two-step split-ballot design with four groups that are defined by device type (PC and smartphone) and scale direction (decremental and incremental). The results reveal that both PCs and smartphones are robust against scale direction effects. The results also show that response behavior differs substantially between PCs and smartphones, indicating that the device type (PC or smartphone) matters. In particular, the findings show that the comparability of data obtained through multi-device surveys is limited.

In empirical social research, using questions with an agreement scale, also known as agree/disagree (A/D) questions, is a popular technique for measuring attitudes and opinions. Methodological considerations, how-ever, suggest that such questions require effortful cognitive processing and are prone to response bias, such as acquiescence. Therefore, many researchers recommend the use of item-specific
(IS) questions, which are based on tailored response categories and seem to imply less response burden. In this study, we investigate the cognitive processing of A/D and IS questions in web surveys, using eye-tracking methodology. On the basis of recordings of respondents' eye movements, we are able to draw conclusions about how respondents process survey questions and to evaluate how they process information. Our results indicate that IS questions require deeper processing than A/D questions. Interestingly, the eye-tracking data reveals that this phenomenon is only observable for the response categories but not for the question stems; this indicates that the stems do not differ in terms of cognitive effort. We therefore argue that the observed differences are directly attributable to a more intensive processing of the IS response categories. Practically speaking, this additionally indicates a more thoughtful processing of the response categories and, thus, might lead to more well-considered and appropriate responses.

Response order effects are a well-known phenomenon that can occur when answering survey
questions with multiple response categories. Although various theoretical explanations exist,
the empirical evidence is contradictory. Moreover, different scale types produce different effect
sizes. In the current study, we investigate the occurrence and causes of response order effects
in horizontal and vertical rating scales by means of eye tracking. We conducted an experiment
(n = 84) with two groups and varied the scale direction so that the response scales either ran
from agree to disagree or vice versa. The results indicate that response order effects in rating
scales are relatively small and are more likely to occur in vertical than in horizontal rating
scales. Moreover, our eye-tracking data reveal that respondents do not read all categories, nor
do they pay equal attention to all categories; these data support the survey satisficing theory of
response order effects (Krosnick, 1991).

In empirical social research, using questions with an agreement/disagreement scale, also known as agree/disagree (A/D) questions, is a very popular technique for measuring attitudes. Major national and international surveys, such as the American National Election Study (ANES), the Eurobarometer, and the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) make use of the A/D question format. Methodological considerations, however, suggest that such questions require effortful cognitive processing and are prone to response bias. Therefore, many survey scientists recommend the use of item-specific (IS)...

In empirical social research, using questions with an agreement/disagreement scale, also known as agree/disagree (A/D) questions, is a very popular technique for measuring attitudes. Major national and international surveys, such as the American National Election Study (ANES), the Eurobarometer, and the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) make use of the A/D question format. Methodological considerations, however, suggest that such questions require effortful cognitive processing and are prone to response bias. Therefore, many survey scientists recommend the use of item-specific (IS)...

The smartphone increase in web surveys, coupled with technological developments, provides novel opportunities for measuring attitudes. For example, smartphones allow the collection of voice instead of text answers by using the built-in microphone. This may facilitate answering questions with open answer formats resulting in richer information and higher data quality. So far, there is only a little body of research investigating voice and text answers to open questions. In this study, we therefore compare the linguistic and content characteristics of voice and text answers to open questions on sensitive topics. For this purpose, we ran an experiment in a smartphone survey ( N = 1001) and randomly assigned respondents to an answer format condition (text or voice). The findings indicate that voice answers have a higher number of words and a higher number of topics than their text counterparts. We find no differences regarding sentiments (or extremity of answers). Our study provides new insights into the linguistic and content characteristics of voice and text answers. Furthermore, it helps to evaluate the usefulness and usability of voice answers for future smartphone surveys.

The use of agree/disagree (A/D) questions is a common technique to measure attitudes. For instance, this question format is employed frequently in the Eurobarometer and International Social Survey Programme (ISSP). Theoretical considerations, however, suggest that A/D questions require a complex processing. Therefore, many survey researchers have
recommended the use of item-specific (IS) questions, since they seem to be less burdensome. Parallel to this methodological discussion is the discussion around the use of mobile devices for responding to surveys. However, until now, evidence has been lacking as to whether the use of mobile devices for survey response affects the performance of established question
formats. In this study, implemented in the Netquest panel in Spain (N = 1,476), we investigated the cognitive effort and response quality associated with A/D and IS questions across PCs and smartphones. For this purpose, we applied a split-ballot design defined by device type and question format. Our analyses revealed longer response times for IS questions than A/D
questions, irrespective of the device type and scale length. Also, the IS questions produced better response quality than their A/D counterparts. All in all, the findings indicate a more conscientious response to IS questions compared to A/D questions.

In this paper, we investigate the context stability of questions on political issues in cross-national surveys. For this purpose, we conducted three replication studies (N1 = 213; N2 = 677; N3 = 1,489) based on eight split-ballot design experiments with undergraduate and graduate students to test for question order effects. The questions, which were taken from the Eurobarometer (2013), included questions on perceived performance and identification. Respondents were randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups which received the questions either in the original or the reversed order. In all three studies, respondents answered the questions about Germany and the European Union/Europe differently depending on whether the question was asked first or second in the question sequence. Specifically, when answering a subsequent question in a question sequence, the preceding question seems to have functioned as a standard of comparison. Our empirical findings also suggest that the likelihood of the occurrence of such context effects can be reduced by implementing informed questionnaire design strategies.