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As they were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory in the 1830s, the southeastern "civilized" nations, that had developed what I contend to be a form of strategic mimesis to resist colonization, seem to have become central agents on a new native-to-native middle ground based on interactions with the Osages and the Comanches. While southeastern Indian leaders had to abandon the nationalist aim they had contemplated in the East, they reproduced a state-making institutional apparatus in the West, modeled after other federal states. In appropriating the lands allocated by the government, they turned the Indian Territory into an economic, political, and cultural extension of the American republic. In the process, they became, despite them, colonizers of the Native populations of the region, who were the original owners of the lands they settled. The pursuance of a strategy of resistance through acculturation put these emigrated nations in an ambivalent position. As they reinvented new forms of sovereignty in the bosom of Federal authority, they developed a "civilizing" diplomacy oriented towards the Plains Indians that must have us reflect on the active part those Indian populations took in American expansion in the middle of the 19th century. ; Alors qu'elles subissent la déportation vers le Territoire Indien dans les années 1830, les nations indiennes dites « civilisées » du Sud-Est, qui avaient développé une forme de mimétisme stratégique pour résister contre la colonisation euro-américaine, semblent devenir les agents centraux d'un middle-ground sur lequel elles interagissent avec les Osages et les Comanches dans les Grandes Plaines. Si les dirigeants indiens du Sud-Est doivent renoncer au projet nationaliste qu'ils avaient contemplé à l'Est dans le cadre de leur résistance, ils reproduisent un arsenal institutionnel de formation de l'État dans l'Ouest, modelé d'après la structure des autres États américains. En s'appropriant les terres allouées par le gouvernement, ils font du Territoire Indien une extension économique, politique et culturelle de la république des États-Unis et deviennent, malgré eux, colonisateurs des populations amérindiennes de la région à qui appartiennent traditionnellement ces territoires. La poursuite d'une stratégie de résistance par l'acculturation place les nations émigrées dans une position ambigüe. Tout en réinventant de nouvelles formes de souveraineté dans le giron des États-Unis, elles adoptent vis-à-vis des Indiens des Plaines une diplomatie « civilisatrice » qui doit nous interroger sur le rôle joué par ces populations amérindiennes dans l'expansion états-unienne au milieu du XIXe siècle.

International audience ; For the past twenty years, ethnohistorians of the New Indian History have highlighted the centrality of populations "from the margins" in the construction of the American nation-state. At the time when the Early Republic expanded, at the beginning of the 19th century, the southeastern Indian nations (Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw and Creek) developed some form of "strategic mimesis" as their sovereignty was threatened by the Federal State. Thus, it seems these Indian nations progressively reinvented themselves out of resilience, redefining in the process their own indianness in adopting major traits of theAmerican social, cultural and political model. "Strategic mimesis" is an ambivalent phenomenon. The adoption of American "civilization", which allowed the Indians to give the American authorities evidence of their ability to assimilate, served in reality nationalist goals propelled by the will to maintain sovereignty on ancestral lands in the east of the Mississippi River. This article aims at studying the way those nations developed an Indian national citizenship within the limits of the American Republic in this context of resistance through acculturation. ; Depuis ces vingt dernières années, les ethnohistoriens de la nouvelle histoire indienne ont montré la centralité des populations « à la marge » dans la construction globale de l'État-nation américain. Alors que la jeune république des États-Unis se développe au début du XIXe siècle, les nations indiennes du Sud-est (Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws et Creeks) développent un « mimétisme stratégique » face à la remise en cause de leur souveraineté par l'État fédéral. Ainsi, ces nations indiennes semblent s'être progressivement réinventées par résilience, redéfinissant par là même leur propre indianité, en adoptant des caractéristiques majeures du modèle social, culturel et politique états-unien. Le « mimétisme stratégique » est un phénomène ambivalent dans lequel l'intégration de la « civilisation » états-unienne par les Indiens, qui permet à ces derniers de « faire civilisés » aux yeux des autorités fédérales, s'inscrit en réalité dans le sillage d'un nationalisme autochtone dynamisé par la volonté de résister pour le maintien de la souveraineté sur les territoires ancestraux situés à l'est du Mississippi. Cet article propose d'étudier la manière dont, dans ce contexte, les nations font émerger une citoyenneté autochtone nationale à l'intérieur des limites de la république américaine dans le cadre de cette résistance par acculturation.

International audience ; As they were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory in the 1830s, the southeastern "civilized" nations, that had developed what I contend to be a form of "strategic mimesis" to resist colonization, seem to have become central agents on a new native-to-native middle ground based on interactions with the Osages and the Comanches. While southeastern Indians leaders had to abandon the nationalist aims they had contemplated in the East, they reproduced a state-making institutional apparatus in the West, modeled after other federal states, making the Indian Territory an economic, political and cultural extension of the American republic. The treaty signed between the Federal government and the Plains Indians in 1846 illustrates the multi-faceted reality of the new frontier caused by Removal. It imposed to the Plains Indians the sovereignty of relocated Indians on lands that were theirs and showed the "civilizing" attitude relocated Indians adopted towards them as they somehow became diplomatic emissaries of the American Empire. The active part relocated Indians took in this treaty-making process, reimagining sovereignty and redefining Indianness as "domestic dependent nations", allows for a reconsideration of the role played by Indians in the making of the ideology of Manifest Destiny at the time it developed.

International audience ; Andrew Jackson's coming to power as the president of the United States in 1828 constituted a major turning point regarding federal Indian policy. Jackson's radicalism, that reached its peak with the deportation of Indian populations living east of the Mississippi to present-day Oklahoma, forced Native American nations to develop strategies of resistance. Among the southeastern nations, resistance imposed the strategic use of cultural transformation and the redefinition of Indianness to try and maintain Indian sovereignty on ancestral lands. The following paper examines the ways both Andrew Jackson and Indian leaders appropriated and articulated the tenets of American Democracy to fuel their antagonistic agendas.

As they were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory in the 1830s, the southeastern "civilized" nations, that had developed what I contend to be a form of strategic mimesis to resist colonization, seem to have become central agents on a new native-to-native middle ground based on interactions with the Osages and the Comanches. While southeastern Indian leaders had to abandon the nationalist aim they had contemplated in the East, they reproduced a state-making institutional apparatus in the West, modeled after other federal states. In appropriating the lands allocated by the government, they turned the Indian Territory into an economic, political, and cultural extension of the American republic. In the process, they became, despite them, colonizers of the Native populations of the region, who were the original owners of the lands they settled. The pursuance of a strategy of resistance through acculturation put these emigrated nations in an ambivalent position. As they reinvented new forms of sovereignty in the bosom of Federal authority, they developed a "civilizing" diplomacy oriented towards the Plains Indians that must have us reflect on the active part those Indian populations took in American expansion in the middle of the 19th century. ; Alors qu'elles subissent la déportation vers le Territoire Indien dans les années 1830, les nations indiennes dites « civilisées » du Sud-Est, qui avaient développé une forme de mimétisme stratégique pour résister contre la colonisation euro-américaine, semblent devenir les agents centraux d'un middle-ground sur lequel elles interagissent avec les Osages et les Comanches dans les Grandes Plaines. Si les dirigeants indiens du Sud-Est doivent renoncer au projet nationaliste qu'ils avaient contemplé à l'Est dans le cadre de leur résistance, ils reproduisent un arsenal institutionnel de formation de l'État dans l'Ouest, modelé d'après la structure des autres États américains. En s'appropriant les terres allouées par le gouvernement, ils font du Territoire Indien une extension ...

International audience ; As they were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory in the 1830s, the southeastern "civilized" nations, that had developed what I contend to be a form of "strategic mimesis" to resist colonization, seem to have become central agents on a new native-to-native middle ground based on interactions with the Osages and the Comanches. While southeastern Indians leaders had to abandon the nationalist aims they had contemplated in the East, they reproduced a state-making institutional apparatus in the West, modeled after other federal states, making the Indian Territory an economic, political and cultural extension of the American republic. The treaty signed between the Federal government and the Plains Indians in 1846 illustrates the multi-faceted reality of the new frontier caused by Removal. It imposed to the Plains Indians the sovereignty of relocated Indians on lands that were theirs and showed the "civilizing" attitude relocated Indians adopted towards them as they somehow became diplomatic emissaries of the American Empire. The active part relocated Indians took in this treaty-making process, reimagining sovereignty and redefining Indianness as "domestic dependent nations", allows for a reconsideration of the role played by Indians in the making of the ideology of Manifest Destiny at the time it developed.

International audience ; Andrew Jackson's coming to power as the president of the United States in 1828 constituted a major turning point regarding federal Indian policy. Jackson's radicalism, that reached its peak with the deportation of Indian populations living east of the Mississippi to present-day Oklahoma, forced Native American nations to develop strategies of resistance. Among the southeastern nations, resistance imposed the strategic use of cultural transformation and the redefinition of Indianness to try and maintain Indian sovereignty on ancestral lands. The following paper examines the ways both Andrew Jackson and Indian leaders appropriated and articulated the tenets of American Democracy to fuel their antagonistic agendas.

International audience ; For the past twenty years, ethnohistorians of the New Indian History have highlighted the centrality of populations "from the margins" in the construction of the American nation-state. At the time when the Early Republic expanded, at the beginning of the 19th century, the southeastern Indian nations (Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw and Creek) developed some form of "strategic mimesis" as their sovereignty was threatened by the Federal State. Thus, it seems these Indian nations progressively reinvented themselves out of resilience, redefining in the process their own indianness in adopting major traits of theAmerican social, cultural and political model. "Strategic mimesis" is an ambivalent phenomenon. The adoption of American "civilization", which allowed the Indians to give the American authorities evidence of their ability to assimilate, served in reality nationalist goals propelled by the will to maintain sovereignty on ancestral lands in the east of the Mississippi River. This article aims at studying the way those nations developed an Indian national citizenship within the limits of the American Republic in this context of resistance through acculturation. ; Depuis ces vingt dernières années, les ethnohistoriens de la nouvelle histoire indienne ont montré la centralité des populations « à la marge » dans la construction globale de l'État-nation américain. Alors que la jeune république des États-Unis se développe au début du XIXe siècle, les nations indiennes du Sud-est (Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws et Creeks) développent un « mimétisme stratégique » face à la remise en cause de leur souveraineté par l'État fédéral. Ainsi, ces nations indiennes semblent s'être progressivement réinventées par résilience, redéfinissant par là même leur propre indianité, en adoptant des caractéristiques majeures du modèle social, culturel et politique états-unien. Le « mimétisme stratégique » est un phénomène ambivalent dans lequel l'intégration de la « civilisation » états-unienne par les Indiens, qui ...

International audience ; Since the "colonial" era, the Southeastern Indian nations (Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks and Seminoles) formed a cultural exception because of the outstanding acculturation that characterized their societies. This phenomenon was the result of a long-term process of adaptation to colonial invasion. In the 1820s, as American expansionism intensified and as the Federal Indian policy radicalized under the aegis of Andrew Jackson's populism, the mixed-blood elites in power among these nations activated a form of strategic mimesis based on acculturation. From the development of slavery to the emergence of a constitutional state-making apparatus, the Southeastern Indian nations appropriated the political, legal and ideological codes of the colonial sphere to affirm their sovereignty and resist the implementation by the Federal State of their deportation to the West. ; Depuis l'ère "coloniale", les nations indiennes du sud-est des États-Unis (les Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks et Séminoles) constituent une exception culturelle, du fait de l'acculturation remarquable qui caractérise leurs sociétés. Ce phénomène est le résultat d'un processus de long terme d'adaptation face à l'invasion coloniale. Tandis que l'expansionnisme des États-Unis s'intensifie et que la politique indienne fédérale se radicalise sous l'égide du populisme d'Andrew Jackson dans les années 1820, les élites métisses au pouvoir au sein des nations du Sud-Est activent une forme de mimétisme stratégique qui s'appuie sur l'acculturation. Du développement de l'esclavage à l'émergence d'un appareil de formation d'États constitutionnels, les nations indiennes s'approprient les codes politiques, juridiques et idéologiques de la sphère coloniale pour affirmer leur souveraineté et résister contre la mise en place par l'État fédéral de leur déportation à l'Ouest par l'État fédéral.

Contribution à la Journée d'études organisée au Château de La Roche-Guyon le 10 mars 2018 ; International audience ; Since the "colonial" era, the Southeastern Indian nations (Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks and Seminoles) formed a cultural exception because of the outstanding acculturation that characterized their societies. This phenomenon was the result of a long-term process of adaptation to colonial invasion. In the 1820s, as American expansionism intensified and as the Federal Indian policy radicalized under the aegis of Andrew Jackson's populism, the mixed-blood elites in power among these nations activated a form of strategic mimesis based on acculturation. From the development of slavery to the emergence of a constitutional state-making apparatus, the Southeastern Indian nations appropriated the political, legal and ideological codes of the colonial sphere to affirm their sovereignty and resist the implementation by the Federal State of their deportation to the West. ; Depuis l'ère "coloniale", les nations indiennes du sud-est des États-Unis (les Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks et Séminoles) constituent une exception culturelle, du fait de l'acculturation remarquable qui caractérise leurs sociétés. Ce phénomène est le résultat d'un processus de long terme d'adaptation face à l'invasion coloniale. Tandis que l'expansionnisme des États-Unis s'intensifie et que la politique indienne fédérale se radicalise sous l'égide du populisme d'Andrew Jackson dans les années 1820, les élites métisses au pouvoir au sein des nations du Sud-Est activent une forme de mimétisme stratégique qui s'appuie sur l'acculturation. Du développement de l'esclavage à l'émergence d'un appareil de formation d'États constitutionnels, les nations indiennes s'approprient les codes politiques, juridiques et idéologiques de la sphère coloniale pour affirmer leur souveraineté et résister contre la mise en place par l'État fédéral de leur déportation à l'Ouest par l'État fédéral.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the southeastern Indian nations — the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, Seminoles and Cherokees—were an exception in the American landscape because of their outstanding acculturation. Ever since the colonial era, the Indians strategically adapted their culture to that of the colonists so they could weigh in the economic and diplomatic interplay that took place between the two communities. When the federal government implemented the so-called "civilization" program, based on the idea that Indians could be integrated to American society, it relied on this long-standing cultural adaptation. Taking the notion of "strategic mimesis" as a starting point, in order to highlight the role played by the Indians themselves in redefining their own identity, this study aims at analyzing the agency of the southeastern Indians in the making of the early American republic. More specifically, the extent to which this strategic imitation developed by the Indians had an impact on the federal Indian policy between 1815 and 1861 is here discussed. Despite the tensions that appeared within the nations, due to this phenomenon of cultural transformation, it seems that the Indian nations reinvented themselves during the period studied here, in adopting a state-making institutional apparel. In this context, Indian removal, initiated by Andrew Jackson in 1830, implied an unprecedented process. While appropriating American culture and institutions, the relocated Indian nations also partook of the making of the West, and had the United States reflect on its very construction and expansion. ; Les nations indiennes du sud-est des États-Unis — les Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, Séminoles et Cherokees — constituent une exception dans le paysage étatsunien du début du XlXème siècle, du fait de leur remarquable acculturation. Depuis l'ère coloniale, les Autochtones font le choix stratégique d'adopter certains traits culturels du colonisateur afin de s'imposer dans le dialogue économique et diplomatique avec ...

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the southeastern Indian nations — the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, Seminoles and Cherokees—were an exception in the American landscape because of their outstanding acculturation. Ever since the colonial era, the Indians strategically adapted their culture to that of the colonists so they could weigh in the economic and diplomatic interplay that took place between the two communities. When the federal government implemented the so-called "civilization" program, based on the idea that Indians could be integrated to American society, it relied on this long-standing cultural adaptation. Taking the notion of "strategic mimesis" as a starting point, in order to highlight the role played by the Indians themselves in redefining their own identity, this study aims at analyzing the agency of the southeastern Indians in the making of the early American republic. More specifically, the extent to which this strategic imitation developed by the Indians had an impact on the federal Indian policy between 1815 and 1861 is here discussed. Despite the tensions that appeared within the nations, due to this phenomenon of cultural transformation, it seems that the Indian nations reinvented themselves during the period studied here, in adopting a state-making institutional apparel. In this context, Indian removal, initiated by Andrew Jackson in 1830, implied an unprecedented process. While appropriating American culture and institutions, the relocated Indian nations also partook of the making of the West, and had the United States reflect on its very construction and expansion. ; Les nations indiennes du sud-est des États-Unis — les Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, Séminoles et Cherokees — constituent une exception dans le paysage étatsunien du début du XlXème siècle, du fait de leur remarquable acculturation. Depuis l'ère coloniale, les Autochtones font le choix stratégique d'adopter certains traits culturels du colonisateur afin de s'imposer dans le dialogue économique et diplomatique avec ...

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the southeastern Indian nations — the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, Seminoles and Cherokees—were an exception in the American landscape because of their outstanding acculturation. Ever since the colonial era, the Indians strategically adapted their culture to that of the colonists so they could weigh in the economic and diplomatic interplay that took place between the two communities. When the federal government implemented the so-called "civilization" program, based on the idea that Indians could be integrated to American society, it relied on this long-standing cultural adaptation. Taking the notion of "strategic mimesis" as a starting point, in order to highlight the role played by the Indians themselves in redefining their own identity, this study aims at analyzing the agency of the southeastern Indians in the making of the early American republic. More specifically, the extent to which this strategic imitation developed by the Indians had an impact on the federal Indian policy between 1815 and 1861 is here discussed. Despite the tensions that appeared within the nations, due to this phenomenon of cultural transformation, it seems that the Indian nations reinvented themselves during the period studied here, in adopting a state-making institutional apparel. In this context, Indian removal, initiated by Andrew Jackson in 1830, implied an unprecedented process. While appropriating American culture and institutions, the relocated Indian nations also partook of the making of the West, and had the United States reflect on its very construction and expansion. ; Les nations indiennes du sud-est des États-Unis — les Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, Séminoles et Cherokees — constituent une exception dans le paysage étatsunien du début du XlXème siècle, du fait de leur remarquable acculturation. Depuis l'ère coloniale, les Autochtones font le choix stratégique d'adopter certains traits culturels du colonisateur afin de s'imposer dans le dialogue économique et diplomatique avec ...

International audience At the beginning of the 19th century, the dynamism of the old southwestern frontier put the Five Civilized Tribes (Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole, Creek and Cherokee) in the position of active participants in the making of the Early Republic due to their outstanding integration in the commercial and cultural exchanges with whites in the region. This phenomenon results from the fact that the Natives voluntarily adapted to American standards in order to ensure their integration within the American nation state and to preserve their sovereignty on their tribal lands. As it was in line with what settlers considered as « civilization », this transition from a traditional Indian society to a hybrid entity seemed to grant the Five Civilized Tribes a certain degree of legitimacy in the region. However, their removal west of the Mississippi enacted in 1830 proved that such was not the case. Yet, the creation of the Indian Territory, where the Five Tribes were forced to settle, seemed to give those « Americanized » Natives the opportunity to assume a position of strength in the West since it placed them in a central geopolitical position in the nineteenth century American landscape. This paper studies the role of Native women in this transformation of Indian identity before and after Removal. It will analyze how they modified the codes of Indian womanhood and femininity, using acculturation as a means to resist. ; Au début du XIXe siècle, le dynamisme tout particulier de la frontière du Vieux Sud-Ouest (Géorgie, Caroline du Sud et Tennessee) confère aux cinq nations dites « civilisées » (Choctaw, Chickasaw, Séminole, Creek et Cherokee) le statut d'agents actifs dans la construction de la jeune République, du fait de leur intégration exceptionnelle dans le tissu commercial et culturel de la région. Cela est dû notamment à une volonté autochtone d'entamer un processus d'adaptation aux standards civilisationnels américains, afin de garantir leur intégration dans la république et de maintenir leur ...