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ABSTRACTPayments for Ecosystem Services (PES) is an innovative initiative to use market instruments for conservation that has spread across the world since the late 1990s. In assessing the efficiency and effectiveness of PES initiatives, global scholarship has focused on an outcome‐oriented approach. This has led to debate on PES programmes' contributions to, and the trade‐offs between, conservation and development. Taking the Sloping Land Conversion Programme (SLCP) in China as an example, this article uses a process‐oriented analytical approach to provide novel understandings of PES as a specific type of development practice. The article shows how notions of equity and justice, local knowledge and local institutions have played a role in shaping the processes and outcomes of the SLCP. The actions of local stakeholders in an interplay with the state created a space for negotiating, adapting and adjusting PES implementation, which eventually contributed to a local development pathway for meeting both national conservation interests and local economic development needs. This indicates that attention to situated agency can help illuminate how PES can be smoothly implemented and effectively negotiated in developing countries.

Not all contradictions in society are social contradictions -- The important influence of non-material interest factors on social contradictions -- The important influence of the structure of social power contrasts on social contradictions -- How social contradictions force social development -- A comparison of the contradiction characteristics in traditional and modern society -- Key features of social contradictions in modern China -- Key features of "public versus officials" contradictions in modern China -- Key features of contradictions between rich and poor in contemporary China -- Key features of contradictions between labor and capital in contemporary China -- Key features of social contradictions in the internet era -- The possibility of social unrest in China -- Actively and effectively dealing with social contradictions.

AbstractThis paper documents the contributions of anthropologists in the improvement of road construction in Yunnan Province of Southwest China. It argues that the involvement of social scientists in road planning can make important contributions to a people‐centred approach, advocate for cultural embeddedness and meet local needs, all of which help to avoid local conflict while promoting local ethnic culture. The policy implication drawn from this research calls for placing social sustainability at the forefront of the institutionalizing of multi‐stakeholder involvement in infrastructure development. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.