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The Oxford Handbook of Evolution, Biology, and Society explores a growing area within sociology: research that uses theory and/or methods from biology. The essays in this handbook integrate current research from all strands of this new and developing area. The first section of this book has essays that address the history of the use of method and theory from biology in the social sciences; the second section has papers on evolutionary approaches to social psychology; the third section has chapters describing research on the interaction of genes (and other biochemicals such as hormones) and environmental contexts on a variety of outcomes of sociological interest; and the fourth section includes papers that apply evolutionary theory to areas of traditional concern to sociologists-including the family, fertility, sex and gender, religion, crime, and race and ethnic relations.

SummaryFitness is always relative to the fitness of others in the group or breeding population. Even in very low-fertility societies, individual fitness as measured by the share of genes in subsequent generations may still be maximized. Further, sexual selection theory from evolutionary biology suggests that the relationship between status and fertility will differ for males and females. For this reason it is important to examine the relationship between status and fertility separately for males and females–something few demographic studies of fertility do. When male fertility is measured separately, high-status men (as measured by their wealth and personal income) have higher fertility than low-status men, even in very low-fertility societies, so individual males appear to be maximizing their fitness within the constraints posed by a modern society. Thus male fertility cannot be considered maladaptive. When female fertility is measured separately, in both very high- and very low-fertility societies, there is not much variance across women of different statuses in completed fertility. Only in societies currently changing rapidly (with falling fertility rates) is somewhat high variance across women of different statuses in completed fertility found. What is seen across all phases of the demographic transition appears to be a continuation of two somewhat different evolved human reproductive strategies–one male, one female–in changing social and material contexts. Whether contemporary female fertility is maladaptive remains an open question.

Rising per capita incomes generated by rural development helped make the industrialization of Europe possible. The current dominant approaches to rural development in European history stress the role of either local class relations or state institutions. Both approaches ignore the role of local institutions. Although class relations and state institutions were important in rural development in European history, the regional analysis presented here shows that these factors alone were not enough. Also important was a suitable institutional structure at the local level. Local institutions and associated class relations also shaped when enclosure occurred and what its effects were and thus need to be taken into account by those assessing the efficiency value of enclosure.

The endurance of democracy in England from the late medieval period to the Glorious Revolution (1688) remains a puzzle. Many analysts agree that an important factor in maintaining constitutionalism in England during this pivotal period was the reliance of the English Crown on indirect taxation and suggest that this reliance occurred because taxation on trade was easy and lucrative in a commercialized economy. I show how this explanation is inadequate. The English Crown tried to institute an additional system of permanent direct taxation in England in this period but failed. In contrast, the French Crown was successful in implementing a system of regular direct taxation in the early fifteenth century, which in turn facilitated the emergence of an autocratic state in the early modern period. I discuss reasons for the national difference, with particular attention to the role of regional factors and the response of local society to state impositions in shaping outcomes in both countries.

A historical analysis of agricultural & economic development in late medieval & early modern England stresses the importance of local institutions in promoting economic growth, arguing that it is inadequate to focus solely on the role of state economic institutions to explain economic development. Rural organization displayed important regional differences in the institutions governing property rights. The midland & central regions typified the regular open field system of well-established communal property rights & higher transaction costs, while eastern & southwestern regions were characterized by irregular open or enclosed field systems that incorporated more individual property rights, less manorial dominance, & lower transaction costs. The labor services & manorial dues expected of farmers in highly communal areas resulted in lower productivity, while those areas with well-defined property rights experienced greater productivity, as well as technological innovations that promoted change elsewhere & affected rural prosperity throughout England. The role of local institutions on the formation of informal norms & ideological systems is discussed. 2 Figures, 114 References. J. Lindroth

Abstract. Women receive better returns than men in authority in the competitive sector of the economy, all else being equal (including gender‐type of occupation and firm size). This finding supports a hypothesis drawn from organizations theory and Becker (1971) (1957). In addition, this analysis shows that while differences in education and hours worked per week do help explain the gender difference in authority in the workplace, gender differences in domestic responsibilities have little direct effect on authority attainment.

Introduction : issues, theory, and methods -- Explaining regional differences in economic organization across Europe -- The new institutional economics, field systems, and economic change -- Rural institutions and agrarian change in England -- Rural institutions and agrarian change in the Netherlands -- Rural institutions and agrarian change in France -- Rural institutions and agrarian change in the German lands -- Rural institutions and agrarian change in Sweden -- Conclusion : rural institutions and agrarian change in the preindustrial West

In this paper, we examine the role of local land tenure, community solidarity, and recent commercialization in the 1994 rebellion in Chiapas. We find that neither the ejido land tenure system, nor community solidarity, nor community disruption and proletarianization due to recent economic change, may be considered as primary causal factors behind the revolt. We find the best explanation for the revolt to lie in the desire of certain groups, notably immigrants to the Lacondón rain forest area, for land, and in recent changes in land tenure law which have ended their hopes of acquiring land. The primary effect of economic change was indirect. It promoted population growth, which has led to increasing pressure on land.