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THEORY OF DEMOCRACY AND POLITICAL POLARIZATION: CAN A POLARIZED SOCIETY REMAINS DEMOCRATIC?
Polarization is a totalizing political tool. While the us versus them division has long fueled political competition, polarization is taking systemic struggle to the next level. Polarization divides the political landscape into two camps, where a compromise can only be found within a given group. The political scene in 21st century Europe is polarized. However, how does this situation affect European values and democratic principles of the rule of law, which protect the stability of democratic systems? Is a polarized state a place where citizens can fully enjoy the benefits of democracy? Can a polarized society reconcile political conflict with democratic values? The article analyzes the phenomenon of political polarization in theoretical terms related to the democratic principles, both classical and those of the contemporary liberal democracies. At the same time, using the example of Poland and other countries, the effects of polarizing actions and their impact on the internal political scene and the social situation are shown.

The problem of the body-soul separation has long been the subject of both philosophy and science. There is no doubt that man is a biological being. What is not certain is how human biology influences our actions and decision processes. Does it constitute humanity or is it just an excess. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Arnold Gehlen, who laid the foundations of the institutional theory, stated that man is a being marked by a deficiency. This statement was derived precisely from man's biological deficiencies. At the same time, those influenced the human's ability to create complex institutional systems. From the biological foundations of the analysis of man as a psychophysical being, Gehlen derived the need to establish a system of rules and norms that helps us to survive. This article will primarily discuss the biological foundations of Gehlen's theory. It will show how this 20th century anthropologist moved from researching the biological aspects of individuals to the cultural challenges faced by modern humans.

Gehlen's theory of institutions shows how thinking about the further prospect of human activities can create the base for constructing institutions. Strong and stable institutions provide social support to the activities of individuals. A man without institution is not able to arouse the motivation for action-oriented ideal. What's more man without the institutions does not know who he is. People needs mediation to understand themselves and that can be provided by the institutions. The necessity of institutions is shown by presenting the chaos that can destroyed lives when they are weakened or liquidated. Gehlen's thesis is clear - without a permanent institutions and without preserving tradition - a true and stable state order is not possible. When system developed for generations stops working, individuals begin to behave in a selfish way, follow only by personal pleasure and potential profit. Nowadays, when state became the subject of an attack by society, the question arises: is it able to become one more time a guard of social order and the embodiment of political virtues? Gehlen's theory of institutions can provide a starting point for discussion of changes that need to be taken to restore the real possibility of political order in the country.

Gehlen's theory of institutions shows how thinking about the further prospect of human activities can create the base for constructing institutions. Strong and stable institutions provide social support to the activities of individuals. A man without institution is not able to arouse the motivation for action-oriented ideal. What's more man without the institutions does not know who he is. People needs mediation to understand themselves and that can be provided by the institutions. The necessity of institutions is shown by presenting the chaos that can destroyed lives when they are weakened or liquidated. Gehlen's thesis is clear - without a permanent institutions and without preserving tradition - a true and stable state order is not possible. When system developed for generations stops working, individuals begin to behave in a selfish way, follow only by personal pleasure and potential profit. Nowadays, when state became the subject of an attack by society, the question arises: is it able to become one more time a guard of social order and the embodiment of political virtues? Gehlen's theory of institutions can provide a starting point for discussion of changes that need to be taken to restore the real possibility of political order in the country.

The publication is a collection of research articles that provide an insight to mnemonic governance – a process of shaping the shared social imaginary of the past by legislators, courts, scholars and other actors. This phenomenon can be observed as an element of political discourse or as changes in law consolidating certain officially recognized states. The contributions in this volume offer a political, legal and historical analysis of transitional justice legislation, emerging memory laws, and the societal perception of the past. With this publication, we intend to contribute to the ongoing and changing debate surrounding memory politics and highlight the practical consequences of mnemonic governance.

In March 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, local elections were held in Bavaria: the first round of voting took place on 15.03.2020 (traditional and postal voting) followed by the run-off ballot on 29.03.2020 (postal voting alone). The political decision to rely solely on postal voting in the second ballot was made unanimously by all the political fractions represented in the Bavarian parliament in the sense of responsibility for public health. The run-off ballot was held in constituencies where voting in the first round did not yield a winner. There were 34 such constituencies out of a total of 96. In this way, a research sample was created embracing the above-mentioned 34 constituencies, randomly and evenly dispersed throughout the entire Bundesland, and a control sample comprising the remaining constituencies. The purpose of this paper is to test the hypothesis according to which the postal voting held in Bavaria in March 2020, amidst the pandemic, led to an increase in the number of COVID-19 cases. The results of this study may be relevant for the discussion that in April and May of 2020 was going on in Poland - and never eventually settled - where public health concerns were raised. The Bavarian example was invoked by both supporters and opponents of postal voting as the sole form of voting in the Polish presidential elections originally scheduled for May of 2020. The Bavarian precedent was instrumentalized as an argument made - respectively in favor or against - sticking to the originally adopted electoral timeline. ; W marcu 2020 r., a więc w czasie trwania pandemii COVID-19, w Bawarii odbyły się wybory samorządowe: 15 marca - pierwsza tura wyborów (w formie tradycyjnej oraz korespondencyjnej), a 29 marca - druga tura (jedynie w formie korespondencyjnej). Zmiana reguł głosowania między I a II turą nastąpiła w atmosferze politycznej zgody, za aprobatą wszystkich frakcji parlamentarnych. Druga tura była zorganizowana w okręgach, w których głosowanie w pierwszej turze nie przyniosło rozstrzygnięcia. Takich ...

In March 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, local elections were held in Bavaria: the first round of voting took place on 15.03.2020 (traditional and postal voting) followed by the run-off ballot on 29.03.2020 (postal voting alone). The political decision to rely solely on postal voting in the second ballot was made unanimously by all the political fractions represented in the Bavarian parliament in the sense of responsibility for public health. The run-off ballot was held in constituencies where voting in the first round did not yield a winner. There were 34 such constituencies out of a total of 96. In this way, a research sample was created embracing the above-mentioned 34 constituencies, randomly and evenly dispersed throughout the entire Bundesland, and a control sample comprising the remaining constituencies. The purpose of this paper is to test the hypothesis according to which the postal voting held in Bavaria in March 2020, amidst the pandemic, led to an increase in the number of COVID-19 cases. The results of this study may be relevant for the discussion that in April and May of 2020 was going on in Poland - and never eventually settled - where public health concerns were raised. The Bavarian example was invoked by both supporters and opponents of postal voting as the sole form of voting in the Polish presidential elections originally scheduled for May of 2020. The Bavarian precedent was instrumentalized as an argument made - respectively in favor or against - sticking to the originally adopted electoral timeline.

In March 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, local elections were held in Bavaria: the first round of voting took place on 15.03.2020 (traditional and postal voting) followed by run-off ballot on 29.03.2020 (postal voting alone). The political decision to rely solely on postal voting in the second ballot was made unanimously by all political fractions represented in the Bavarian parliament in the sense of responsibility for public health. The run-off ballot was held in constituencies where voting in the first round did not yield a winner. There were 34 such constituencies out of a total of 96. In this way, a research sample was created embracing the abovementioned 34 constituencies, randomly and evenly dispersed throughout the entire Bundesland, and a control sample comprising the remaining constituencies. The purpose of this paper is to test the hypothesis according to which the postal voting held in Bavaria in March 2020, amidst the pandemic, has led to an increase of the number of COVID-19 cases. The results of this study may be relevant for the discussion that is ongoing in Poland where public health concerns are being expressed. The Bavarian example was invoked by both supporters and opponents of postal voting as the sole form of voting in the upcoming 2020 presidential elections in Poland – as an argument made – respectively in favor of or against – sticking to the originally adopted schedule ; Teisės fakultetas ; Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas