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Research into the harassment of politicians and other public officials in Northern America and Western Europe demonstrates that 30–93% of politicians report having experienced harassing or stalking behaviour which can comprise serious risks for the integrity of democracy and government. This leads to intriguing questions such as: what types of threats do politicians face and how do they respond to those threats? This article presents the results of research on those questions in The Netherlands. Semi-structured interviews and Q- methodology were applied to gain insight into the different types of threats and the ways in which aldermen cope with these threats and harassments. The types of threats and harassments are diverse from verbal abuse to physical violence. Q-methodology shows three types of rather different strategies towards threats and harassment. The first attitude is combative and decisive. The second attitude is vulnerable and cautious. The third attitude is down to earth and accepting. These findings are relevant because threats and harassment, unfortunately, are becoming an inevitable part of political life nowadays. More insight into the strategies used by politicians are relevant for fighting threats and harassment towards politicians and to strengthen the resilience of politicians.

How often are politicians confronted with public allegations of integrity violations? Which types of violations, government levels, and parties do these scandals involve? The Political Integrity Index developed in The Netherlands offers information about the number and types of political integrity scandals in the country since 2013. This article presents a brief overview of the relevant literature on integrity and corruption and on political scandals, with a summary of the conceptual framework and methodology used in our research, as well as some of the results. In the years 2013–2019, 355 political integrity scandals were documented, primarily at the local level of government (79%), involving almost all political parties but with the liberal–conservative People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie [VVD]) most prominent (90 scandals), and containing all types of integrity violations, with as the most prominent type "misconduct in the private sphere" (30%). The topic of integrity scandals involving politicians is relevant but nearly absent in research on public integrity and corruption. This is a challenge and an invitation to researchers in other countries to do comparable research, which might result in a theoretically and practically useful international political integrity index. For that research, the framework of the Political Integrity Index seems useful.

Die Korruption und ihre Kausalität gehören zu den umstrittensten Konzepten in den Sozialwissenschaften und ihre Kombination bietet ein sowohl faszinierendes wie auch ein scheinbar unlösbares Puzzle. Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird versucht, einige der umstrittenen Fragen der Korruptionsforschung zu klären, die zum Beispiel die Charakterisierung und Definition von Korruption sowie die Frage betreffen, wie ihre Ursachen theoretisch interpretiert werden können. Nach dem modernen Verständnis wird die Korruption gemeinhin als der Missbrauch anvertrauter Macht zum eigenen Nutzen definiert. Diese Interpretation ist in erster Linie verhaltensfokussiert, individualistisch und staatszentriert, das heißt die Korruption wird in der Regel als eine Art Beziehungsphänomen verstanden, wo mindestens zwei Akteure miteinander interagieren. Die Art und Weise der Betrachtung dieses Beziehungsphänomens fällt je nach Disziplin, theoretischen Grundprämissen und Forschungsinteressen unterschiedlich aus. Um die Wechselbeziehungen der verschiedenen analytischen Ebenen zu verdeutlichen, entwirft der Autor ein Mehrebenenmodell, in dem die Bedingungen und Ursachen der Korruption abgebildet werden können. (ICI)