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The period 1976-2002 can be regarded as the first phase of renewable energy and conservation (REC) development, as the REC technologies were still a supplement to energy systems mainly based upon fossil fuels (here named FFU technologies). In this first phase of the Danish development, a "Green energy cluster" consisting of renewable energy technologies such as wind power, solar energy, and biomass and energy conservation technologies was developed. This development was implemented despite a systematic resistance from the Ministry of Finance, the industrial establishment and the established fossil fuel-based power companies, which regarded the new "Green energy technologies" as competitors to their large power plants based upon coal and oil. Independent lobbyists such as energy grass roots organisations, new companies within the green technology cluster and some active politicians were able to give political momentum to a development of a spectrum of green energy technologies. This process of organisations independent of existing economic interests being given democratic influence is here defined as the innovative democracy process. In the period 2000-2013, Denmark entered a second phase with REC technologies substantially increasing their share of the energy supply and on their way of becoming the main energy technologies. Meanwhile from 2002- 2008, a right-wing government lead by Anders Fogh Rasmussen (AFR) closed down innovative democracy process and a "non-policy" relying on existing market actors and existing market conditions was implemented. In this period the development of renewable energy was almost brought to a halt. But in 2008 AFR made a political u-turn, and declared his support to a 100% Renewable Energy future. In 2012 a new center left Government made an energy plan with the goal of 100% Renewable Energy in 2050. This goal was supported by a large majority in the Parliament in an agreement in 2012. The conclusion of this paper is that both in the first phase of renewable energy development, and ...

Transition from the stored energy of fossil fuel-based systems to fluctuating renewable energy sources requires a fundamental change in both the energy supply system and governance arrangements. According to analyses made using the Aalborg University Energy PLAN model, the infrastructure required to handle fluctuating energy – such as goals for further expanding the exploitation of wind power towards 50% of energy consumption – necessitates the integration of power, district heating, transportation and biomass production, which should be geographically distributed. To enhance our understanding of this paradigmatic technological change, this article presents both a general analysis of the regulatory consequences and a specific analysis of the immediate challenges involved in the transition process, framed within the Danish context. The general conclusion is that the required distributed, local and regional technological energy system needs a bottom up and interactive regulatory framework, where the central government should have a more reflexive and communicative role, providing services and national coordination for an energy system that contains a large share of fluctuating renewable energy sources. A specific conclusion is that the present Danish tariff principles and energy tax system should be fundamentally altered in order to better facilitate the coordination of the heat and electricity sectors, to incentivise the creation of the necessary integration infrastructure.

The expansion and long-term sustainability of the renewable energy industry will depend on many factors. Energy demand, energy access, energy security, the green collar jobs agenda and climate protection will all drive the industry forward. Public opposition and insufficient financial support can hold it back. To facilitate steady, sustainable growth of the renewable energy market, careful consideration of promotion policies will be necessary to ensure that the inherently distributed nature of renewable energy sources translates into diverse ownership, with broad support. Such support will drive the rapid deployment of these socially and economically beneficial and environmentally necessary technologies. This acceleration can be created through innovative democracy, which attempts to bring all actors into the decision-making process. When considered as a market driver for renewable energy, this equitable, participatory approach must be considered in conjunction with stable financial support schemes which allow diverse actors to engage the market. Lessons from Denmark and the United States show why this combination of conditions is central to the rapid deployment of renewable energy. Policymakers can assess the effectiveness of this approach by analysing which groups benefit most from the design of different policies. The authors suggest several criteria for performing this analysis.

The speed and progress of transitions towards renewable energy systems varies greatly between European member states. Among others, these differences have been attributed to the emergence of grassroots initiatives (GIs) that develop radical ideas and sustainable practices. The goal of this paper is to understand the differences in the emergence of GIs for renewable energy in relation to the institutional characteristics of Denmark, the Netherlands and Sweden. We analyze the possibilities of GIs to emerge and act within three dimensions: the material-economic, the actor-institutional and discursive dimension. We conclude that conditional factors lie within the material-economic dimension in terms of the biophysical conditions, the structure of the economy, energy dependency and the energy market. Within the actor-institutional dimension, we conclude that the presence or absence of fossil fuel incumbents, such as regional utilities, strongly influence the possibilities of GIs. Within the discursive dimension, openness for alternative discourses proved to be enabling for GI-activities, as well as democratized knowledge production. In addition to these conditions of possibility, GIs can also act despite dominant institutions, albeit limited. Finally, GIs need a strong network with knowledge institutes, technology developers and political parties in order to achieve institutional change that enables GIs to flourish. Without institutional space, GIs remain subjected to the dominant power-relations, and cannot exert much influence upon the energy system.

Executive summary: A number of possible policy means of attaining the overall goals of the CEESA scenarios are discussed in this report. It is found that the transition from the present energy system dominated by fossil fuels to a system dominated by renewable energy sources requires significant changes in existing policies, both on the supply and the demand side. This is a change from polluting energy systems that depend on depleting inputs to energy systems that depend on relatively abundant inputs andarerelatively non-polluting and intermittent. This change requires a new paradigm. It requires infrastructure which can manage intermittent renewable energy sources in such a way that energy is available at the right time and in the right amount for the consumers. The policy instruments include systems of taxes, subsidies, tariffs, and other economic conditions in order to obtain an optimal effect. In addition, a number of institutional and regulatory changes are proposed. A central question in this connection is the balance between the role of the market and the role of societal planning and regulation.When the long lifetime of many energy plants and infrastructures, including buildings, istaken into account, it is concluded that the balance needs to changeto increase the role of long-term societal planning and regulation. A challenge tothe transition planning is how to obtain an efficient co-ordination between investments in electricity, transport, and heatingsectors. A number of macro-economic barriers exist to the transition from fossil fuels to renewables, e.g., in relation to market structuresthat support "lock-in" to technologies based on fossil fuels. In Denmark, another barrier is the prevalence of high discount rates for the planning of future investments.Some of the existing barriers can be removed (or reduced) by national changes of tariffs, taxes and other policies, and by changed planning methodologies and priorities at the national level, while others may need changes at the EU level. These changes will require alternative political decisions at high levels in Denmark and the EU. However, the political mechanisms which form the paths to these high-level decisions are not part of this report. One of the main problems in a future energy system dominated by intermittent renewable sources (e.g.,wind and solar energy) is the stability of the electric grid and the security of supply to electricity consumers. In this connection, biomass in different forms plays a central role as a storage element. But,while the amount of Danish biomass, taking into account other uses of the land area, is rather limited,biomass is also in demand in the transport sector and for high temperature industrial process heat (transformed to a liquid fuel or to biogas). Due to the limited biomass resources, the CEESA scenario proposes that the best solution is to letelectricity from wind and photovoltaicpowerreplace the demand for biomass, where possible, and to stabilize the grid by other means than biomass, where relevant alternatives are available. This includes the systematic use of large heat pumps and heat storage, eventually combined with electric cars. In addition, new and efficient communication systems between energy suppliers and consumers are required, often described as "intelligent grids" or "smart grids". The appropriate policy means should be selected in accordance with these technological solutions.

The speed and progress of transitions towards renewable energy systems varies greatly between European member states. Among others, these differences have been attributed to the emergence of grassroots initiatives (GIs) that develop radical ideas and sustainable practices. The goal of this paper is to understand the differences in the emergence of GIs for renewable energy in relation to the institutional characteristics of Denmark, the Netherlands and Sweden. We analyze the possibilities of GIs to emerge and act within three dimensions: the material-economic, the actor-institutional and discursive dimension. We conclude that conditional factors lie within the material-economic dimension in terms of the biophysical conditions, the structure of the economy, energy dependency and the energy market. Within the actor-institutional dimension, we conclude that the presence or absence of fossil fuel incumbents, such as regional utilities, strongly influence the possibilities of GIs. Within the discursive dimension, openness for alternative discourses proved to be enabling for GI-activities, as well as democratized knowledge production. In addition to these conditions of possibility, GIs can also act despite dominant institutions, albeit limited. Finally, GIs need a strong network with knowledge institutes, technology developers and political parties in order to achieve institutional change that enables GIs to flourish. Without institutional space, GIs remain subjected to the dominant power-relations, and cannot exert much influence upon the energy system.

This document is a summary of the key technical inputs for the modelling of the heat strategy for Europe outlined in the latest Heat Roadmap Europe studies [1, 2]. These studies quantify the impact of alternative heating strategies for Europe in 2030 and 2050. The study is based on geographical information systems (GIS) and energy system analyses. In this report, the inputs for other modelling tools such as PRIMES are presented, in order to enable other researches to generate similar heating scenarios for Europe. Although Heat Roadmap Europe presents a complete heat strategy for Europe, which includes energy efficiency, individual heating units (such as boilers and heat pumps), and heat networks, the recommendations here are primarily relating to the potential and modelling of district heating. Although other solutions will play a significant role in decarbonising the heating and cooling sector, especially heat savings and heat pumps, these are not the focus in this document since many tools and organisations already have the ability to analyse these solutions. In contrast, there is currently a considerable shortage of basic knowledge about the modelling, implementation, and role of district heating in a low-carbon energy system context, so we have focused on this area based on our extensive experience in this area [1-10]. This report includes guidelines on the potential heat demand in European buildings that can be met by district heating as well as some general guidelines on how this district heating demand can be supplied. Typical capacities are recommended for boilers, combined heat and power (CHP) plants, centralised heat pumps, and thermal storage facilities. In addition, the potential heat available from surplus heat and renewable heat sources is outlined. These inputs can be used to model increased penetrations of district heating in the EU energy system in other energy planning tools, such as the PRIMES and JRC-EU-TIMES tools. The key results from the Heat Roadmap Europe studies are that:  Heat savings have a key role to play, but there is a socio-economic limit: after reducing the total heat demand by approximately 30-50%, it will be cheaper to supply heat from a sustainable resource instead of continuing with further savings, which can also enable a higher penetration of renewable energy due to cost shifted from savings and due to the availability of low cost waste heat sources.  District heating should be implemented in the urban areas of Europe where the heat density is high enough.  Heat pumps should be the primary individual heating solution in rural areas, but they will be supplemented by biomass boilers and solar thermal units in suitable locations. The scale and locations of these individual heating solutions has yet to be determined. By implementing these measures, the Heat Roadmap Europe studies have indicated that it is possible to reduce the overall socio-economic costs of the EU energy system while simultaneously reducing carbon dioxide emissions and increasing the utilisation of renewable energy. To supplement these technical recommendations, this document also gives a flavour of the key policies which can be used to stimulate the growth of district heating in Europe. The key conclusion from these recommendations is that the European Union has a key role to play in the legislation of district heating, even though the implementation is required at a Member State (MS) level.

Concerns about climate change, diminishing social acceptance of traditional fuels, and technological innovations have led several countries to pursue energy transition strategies, typically by massive diffusion of renewable electricity supplies. The German 'Energiewende has been successful so far in terms of deploying renewable power, mainly by applying particular feed-in tariffs, and by bundling public, academic, industrial and political support. So far though, only few EU member states proceed with a similar transition. In March 2014 CEOs of Europes major energy companies publicly opposed a fast and thorough transformation of electricity supplies to become fully renewable. In April 2014 the European Commission published new state aid guidelines, generally mandating renewable energy support mechanisms (premiums, tenders) of lesser performance than regularly adjusted, specific feed-in tariffs. The new guidelines are likely to be pernicious for the fast deployment of renewable electricity supplies. In light of these challenges, this position paper highlights two implications of power sector transitions. First, the engineering-economics theory of power generation systems needs fundamental revision, mainly since a growing share of power sources no longer function on command. Second, and based on the experience in Germany, the paper sketches out a strategy for a thorough transition of the power sector, which, in the end, also entails normative judgements. Deep changes in energy systems and associated ways of living require societal consensus building based on ethical considerations. ; (VLID)1756111

Concerns about climate change, diminishing social acceptance of traditional fuels, and technological innovations have led several countries to pursue energy transition strategies, typically by massive diffusion of renewable electricity supplies. The German 'Energiewende' has been successful so far in terms of deploying renewable power, mainly by applying particular feed-in tariffs, and by bundling public, academic, industrial and political support. So far though, only few EU member states proceed with a similar transition. In March 2014 CEOs of Europe's major energy companies publicly opposed a fast and thorough transformation of electricity supplies to become fully renewable. In April 2014 the European Commission published new state aid guidelines, generally mandating renewable energy support mechanisms (premiums, tenders) of lesser performance than regularly adjusted, specific feed-in tariffs. The new guidelines are likely to be pernicious for the fast deployment of renewable electricity supplies.In light of these challenges, this position paper highlights two implications of power sector transitions. First, the engineering-economics theory of power generation systems needs fundamental revision, mainly since a growing share of power sources no longer function on command. Second, and based on the experience in Germany, the paper sketches out a strategy for a thorough transition of the power sector, which, in the end, also entails normative judgements. Deep changes in energy systems and associated ways of living require societal consensus building based on ethical considerations.

Concerns about climate change, diminishing social acceptance of traditional fuels, and technological innovations have led several countries to pursue energy transition strategies, typically by massive diffusion of renewable electricity supplies. The German 'Energiewende' has been successful so far in terms of deploying renewable power, mainly by applying particular feed-in tariffs, and by bundling public, academic, industrial and political support. So far though, only few EU member states proceed with a similar transition. In March 2014 CEOs of Europe's major energy companies publicly opposed a fast and thorough transformation of electricity supplies to become fully renewable. In April 2014 the European Commission published new state aid guidelines, generally mandating renewable energy support mechanisms (premiums, tenders) of lesser performance than regularly adjusted, specific feed-in tariffs. The new guidelines are likely to be pernicious for the fast deployment of renewable electricity supplies.In light of these challenges, this position paper highlights two implications of power sector transitions. First, the engineering-economics theory of power generation systems needs fundamental revision, mainly since a growing share of power sources no longer function on command. Second, and based on the experience in Germany, the paper sketches out a strategy for a thorough transition of the power sector, which, in the end, also entails normative judgements. Deep changes in energy systems and associated ways of living require societal consensus building based on ethical considerations.

Denmark has more than 10 years' of experience with a wind share of approximately 20 per cent. During these 10 years, electricity markets have been subject to developments with a key focus on integrating wind power as well as trading electricity with neighbouring countries. This article introduces a methodology to analyse and understand the current market integration of wind power and concludes that the majority of Danish wind power in the period 2004e2008 was used to meet the domestic demand. Based on a physical analysis, at least 63 per cent of Danish wind power was used domestically in 2008. To analyse the remaining 37 per cent, we must apply a market model to identify cause-effect relationships. The Danish case does not illustrate any upper limit for wind power integration, as also illustrated by Danish political targets to integrate 50 per cent by 2020. In recent years, Danish wind power has been financed solely by the electricity consumers, while maintaining production prices below the EU average. The net influence from wind power has been as low as 1e3 per cent of the consumer price. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.