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Since the outbreak of COVID-19, we have been facing one of the most severe challenges of our modern era. As the world experiences ever-greater globalization, a process of assimilation has accelerated in numerous spheres such as cultural, educational, economic, etc., but it is notable that the measures taken by countries to combat the impact of COVID-19 vary significantly. A considerable number of countries have implemented lockdown strategies backed by new laws, whereas some others have been relying on the virtues of good citizenship in order to not depend on their legal systems. Within Asia there are also contrasting approaches; for instance, China and Korea responded with a quick and effective tracking method, while Japan depended on a self-restraint strategy.
The Japanese and Swedish approaches to COVID-19 are unique and ambiguous, because they are based on voluntary self-restraint. There is no legal or political mechanism to control people's behaviours. Still, in rough terms these methods seem to have been working, at least until now. In order to understand the puzzling practice of self-restraint, this research explores the origin and cultural background of self-restraint in Japan descriptively and evaluates its positive and negative consequences. Rather than utilizing the philosophy of communitarianism as the theoretical base, it examines the deep relationship between Japan and the surrounding environment, and the use of self-restraint in various events, including those related to COVID-19. Moreover, this study adds to the debate on seeking the right balance between the communitarian common good that is especially emphasized in the East, and an individual's rights and freedom that are highlighted in the West.

Since the outbreak of COVID-19, we have been facing one of the most severe challenges of our modern era. As the world experiences ever-greater globalization, a process of assimilation has accelerated in numerous spheres such as cultural, educational, economic, etc., but it is notable that the measures taken by countries to combat the impact of COVID- 19 vary significantly. A considerable number of countries have implemented lockdown strategies backed by new laws, whereas some others have been relying on the virtues of good citizenship in order to not depend on their legal systems. Within Asia there are also contrasting approaches; for instance, China and Korea responded with a quick and effective tracking method, while Japan depended on a self-restraint strategy. The Japanese and Swedish approaches to COVID-19 are unique and ambiguous, because they are based on voluntary self-restraint. There is no legal or political mechanism to control people's behaviours. Still, in rough terms these methods seem to have been working, at least until now. In order to understand the puzzling practice of self-restraint, this research explores the origin and cultural background of self-restraint in Japan descriptively and evaluates its positive and negative consequences. Rather than utilizing the philosophy of communitarianism as the theoretical base, it examines the deep relationship between Japan and the surrounding environment, and the use of self-restraint in various events, including those related to COVID-19. Moreover, this study adds to the debate on seeking the right balance between the communitarian common good that is especially emphasized in the East, and an individual's rights and freedom that are highlighted in the West. ; Od izbruha COVID-19 se soočamo z enim najhujših izzivov sodobne dobe. Kljub temu da svet doživlja vse večjo globalizacijo in se je proces asimilacije pospešil na številnih področjih, kot so kulturno, izobraževalno in gospodarsko, je mogoče opaziti, da se ukrepi držav za boj proti vplivu COVID-19 med seboj znatno razlikujejo. Veliko držav je uveljavilo strategije zaprtja, podprte z novimi zakoni, medtem ko so se nekatere, da ne bi bile odvisne od svojih pravnih sistemov, sklicevale na vrline dobrega državljanstva. V Aziji obstajajo tudi nasprotujoči si pristopi; na primer Kitajska in Koreja sta se odzvali s hitro in učinkovito metodo sledenja, Japonska pa je bila odvisna od strategije samoomejevanja. Japonski in švedski pristop h COVID-19 sta edinstvena in dvoumna, saj temeljita na prostovoljnem samoomejevanju. Ne vsebujeta pravnega ali političnega mehanizma za nadzorovanje vedenja ljudi. Kljub temu so te metode grobo rečeno vsaj do sedaj dobro delovale. Da bi razumeli zapleteno prakso samoomejevanja, pričujoča študija proučuje izvor in kulturno ozadje samoomejevanja na Japonskem ter ocenjuje njegove pozitivne in negativne učinke. Namesto da bi kot teoretsko podlago postavila filozofijo komunitarizma, preučuje globlji odnos med Japonsko in obkrožujočim okoljem ter uporabo samoomejevanja pri različnih dogodkih, vključno s tistimi, povezanimi s COVID-19. Poleg tega študija prispeva k razpravi o iskanju pravega ravnovesja med skupnim dobrim komunitarizma, ki je še posebej poudarjen na Vzhodu, ter pravicami in svoboščinami posameznika, ki so poudarjene na Zahodu.

Since the outbreak of COVID-19, we have been facing one of the most severe challenges of our modern era. As the world experiences ever-greater globalization, a process of assimilation has accelerated in numerous spheres such as cultural, educational, economic, etc., but it is notable that the measures taken by countries to combat the impact of COVID-19 vary significantly. A considerable number of countries have implemented lockdown strategies backed by new laws, whereas some others have been relying on the virtues of good citizenship in order to not depend on their legal systems. Within Asia there are also contrasting approaches; for instance, China and Korea responded with a quick and effective tracking method, while Japan depended on a self-restraint strategy. The Japanese and Swedish approaches to COVID-19 are unique and ambiguous, because they are based on voluntary self-restraint. There is no legal or political mechanism to control people's behaviours. Still, in rough terms these methods seem to have been working, at least until now. In order to understand the puzzling practice of self-restraint, this research explores the origin and cultural background of self-restraint in Japan descriptively and evaluates its positive and negative consequences. Rather than utilizing the philosophy of communitarianism as the theoretical base, it examines the deep relationship between Japan and the surrounding environment, and the use of self-restraint in various events, including those related to COVID-19. Moreover, this study adds to the debate on seeking the right balance between the communitarian common good that is especially emphasized in the East, and an individual's rights and freedom that are highlighted in the West. ; Od izbruha COVID-19 se soočamo z enim najhujših izzivov sodobne dobe. Kljub temu da svet doživlja vse večjo globalizacijo in se je proces asimilacije pospešil na številnih področjih, kot so kulturno, izobraževalno in gospodarsko, je mogoče opaziti, da se ukrepi držav za boj proti vplivu COVID-19 med seboj znatno razlikujejo. Veliko držav je uveljavilo strategije zaprtja, podprte z novimi zakoni, medtem ko so se nekatere, da ne bi bile odvisne od svojih pravnih sistemov, sklicevale na vrline dobrega državljanstva. V Aziji obstajajo tudi nasprotujoči si pristopi; na primer Kitajska in Koreja sta se odzvali s hitro in učinkovito metodo sledenja, Japonska pa je bila odvisna od strategije samoomejevanja. Japonski in švedski pristop h COVID-19 sta edinstvena in dvoumna, saj temeljita na prostovoljnem samoomejevanju. Ne vsebujeta pravnega ali političnega mehanizma za nadzorovanje vedenja ljudi. Kljub temu so te metode grobo rečeno vsaj do sedaj dobro delovale. Da bi razumeli zapleteno prakso samoomejevanja, pričujoča študija proučuje izvor in kulturno ozadje samoomejevanja na Japonskem ter ocenjuje njegove pozitivne in negativne učinke. Namesto da bi kot teoretsko podlago postavila filozofijo komunitarizma, preučuje globlji odnos med Japonsko in obkrožujočim okoljem ter uporabo samoomejevanja pri različnih dogodkih, vključno s tistimi, povezanimi s COVID-19. Poleg tega študija prispeva k razpravi o iskanju pravega ravnovesja med skupnim dobrim komunitarizma, ki je še posebej poudarjen na Vzhodu, ter pravicami in svoboščinami posameznika, ki so poudarjene na Zahodu.

The year 2020 has been a challenging year to combat against COVID-19. In spite of the globalization and the assimilation of certain political, economic, administrative and cultural practices, the measures taken to protect from COVID-19 are varied according to the countries and their cultures. While Western countries lock down their cities in accordance with the political and juristic orders, the answer Japan gives, namely jishuku, is remarkable and unique. Because it is a voluntary action played by the Japanese citizens and the Communitarian culture developed throughout Japanese history enables to realize such operation. Although still there are a few, studies on the results of jishuku have been progressing. Yet, the origin and the cultural base of jishuku have not been examined sufficiently. Therefore, this study aims to analyze jishuku and surrounding key concepts interdisciplinary. The analysis reveals that the Japanese sociocultural background that closely relates to the frequent tragedies provoked by natural disasters, constructs the culture of jishuku. Moreover, Japan shows an example of a communitarian model to face against some of disasters like the one in which we have been living at present. In addition, it opens us the never-ending discussion on the search for the right balance between the Communitarian model of common good and the Individualist model that defends the individual's rights. ; El año 2020 ha sido un año de desafío contra COVID-19. A pesar de la globalización y la asimilación de ciertas prácticas políticas, económicas, administrativas, y culturales, las medidas tomadas ante la amenaza de COVID-19 están siendo variadas según los países y las culturas que los acompañan. Mientras los países occidentales realizan cierres de emergencia según el orden político-judicial, la respuesta japonesa denominada jishuku es llamativa y singular, porque es una medida tomada voluntariamente por los ciudadanos japoneses y la cultura comunitarista, desarrollada a lo largo de la historia nipona que hace posible la realización de dicha acción. Aunque son aún pocos, se está avanzando en los estudios sobre los resultados de jishuku. No obstante, el origen y la base cultural de jishuku no ha sido indagada suficientemente todavía. Es por ello por lo que este trabajo pretende analizar jishuku y los conceptos claves alrededor de él desde un enfoque interdisciplinar. El análisis revela que el contexto sociocultural japonés estrechamente relacionado con las frecuentes tragedias provocadas por los desastres naturales constituye la cultura de jishuku. Además, Japón muestra un ejemplo del modelo comunitarista para afrontar la amenaza de algunos desastres como en el que vivimos actualmente. Al mismo tiempo, nos abre a la interminable discusión de la búsqueda del equilibrio justo entre el modelo comunitarista del bien común y el modelo individualista que defiende los derechos de los individuos.

Esta tesis doctoral pretende desafiar el debate interminable del desarrollo de la democracia, especialmente en el contexto no occidental utilizando el caso de Japón. Investigaciones sobre democracia se han hecho desde varias perspectivas, y este estudio se acerca a ella desde la disciplina de sociedad civil y capital social. Siguiendo sus suposiciones sobre el papel positivo de las asociaciones civiles voluntarias para la promoción de la democracia sana, exploramos el papel de las asociaciones de vecinos en Japón, que son las más extendidas y con mayor número, para examinar esas teorías en un contexto no occidental. ; This thesis aims to challenge the unfading debate on the quality of democracy, especially in the non-Western contexts by taking the example of Japan. Studies on democracy have been carried out from diverse perspectives, yet this study approaches from the discipline of civil society and social capital. Following their assumptions on the positive role of civil voluntary association for the promotion of healthy democracy, I explore the role of neighborhood associations (NHAs) in Japan, the widely spread and the largest in number organizations, to test the theories in the non-Western background. ; Tesis Univ. Granada. Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Ciencias Jurídicas

Los estudios sobre la participación en asociaciones cívicas voluntarias muestran una relación positiva con la participación política. Este trabajo estudia si el tipo de participación (voluntaria o no) se relaciona de la misma manera con el nivel de interés por los asuntos sociopolíticos, usando para ello evidencias del caso de Japón. Los resultados apuntan que la distinción entre participación voluntaria y no voluntaria resulta especialmente relevante para el caso de los hombres. Asimismo, los resultados indican que las variables de recursos del modelo de voluntarismo cívico parecen ser las más relacionadas con el interés por la política, excepto en el caso de las mujeres, donde no se sigue la misma pauta. ; Studies on participation in voluntary civic associations show a positive relationship with political participation. This work examines whether the type of participation (voluntary or not) is related to the level of interest in socio-political issues in the same way. To that aim, it uses evidences from the case of Japan. The results suggest that the distinction between voluntary and non-voluntary participation is especially relevant for men. Likewise, the results indicate that the resource variables of the civic voluntarism model seem to be the most strongly related to the interest in politics; but the same pattern is not followed in the case of women.

The utility of information and communication technologies (ICT) becomes increasingly more essential in modern societies, and the new public space provided by ICT gives opportunities for people who previously did not have tools to be heard, to discuss, to meet and to start social movements, as happened in the case of «Occupy Wall Street» or «Arab Spring». Recently the similar phenomenon has been observed in Japan, a country with the existence of weak civil society, little interest of citizens to protest, and the lack of active social movements. Yet lately, new groups against the government appear taking advantage of the use of ICT, especially social networks. In this research we aim to study the impact, the application, and the advantages and disadvantages of social networks in these protest movements in order to increase better political education. The methodology to be used is case study (process-tracing method), analyzing data and information collected from various digital communication sources. After the study we conclude that the use of social networks contributes to the activation of Japanese civil society. ; La utilidad de las tecnologías de información y comunicación (TIC) se muestra cada vez más imprescindible en las sociedades modernas, y el nuevo espacio público facilitado por las TIC da oportunidades a la gente que antes no tenía herramientas para opinar, discutir, reunirse e iniciar movimientos sociales, como sucedieron en los casos del Occupy Wall Street o la denominada «primavera árabe». Recientemente se observa también un fenómeno parecido en Japón, un país con una existencia de sociedad civil con falta de autonomía e interés por las protestas de los ciudadanos y escasez de movimientos sociales activos. Últimamente, se aprecian grupos contra el gobierno con el uso de TIC, especialmente redes sociales. En esta investigación tratamos de estudiar el impacto, aplicación, ventajas e inconvenientes de redes sociales en estos movimientos de protesta para el desarrollo de una mejor educación política. La metodología será de estudio de casos (método process-tracing), analizando datos e informaciones de varias fuentes digitales comunicativas. Después del estudio concluimos con que el uso de redes sociales contribuye a la activación de la sociedad civil japonesa.