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JANET ABU-LUGHOD RESPONDS TO DONALD NIELSEN'S CRITIQUE OF HER BOOK "BEFORE EUROPEAN HEGEMONY." SHE DECLARES HER BASIC AGREEMENT WITH NIELSEN'S CRITIQUE, BUT HOPES THAT HER WORK WILL STILL FULFILL ITS BASIC PURPOSE: THE STIMULATION OF FURTHER DEBATE ON THE SUBJECT.

New York and Cairo share a small-grain, diverse character which contrasts sharply with Chicago's spatial insulation. Posits that both may have been shaped by similar legal, social and political processes. But the similarity is superficial; the deep structures of the 2 are very different, reflecting different roles in the global economy. Advanced cities may reproduce characteristics of the least developed. (SJK)

THE AUTHOR'S THEORY IS THAT HISTORY HAS A BIAS IN ITS STRESS ON THE WEST WINNING OUT OVER THE EAST IN DEVELOPMENT IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. SHE HYPOTHESIZES THAT REORGANIZATION OF THE WORLD SYSTEM AT THIS TIME FAVORING THE WEST IS AT LEAST AS ATTRIBUTABLE TO SYSTEMIC GEOPOLITICAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC CAUSES AS TO ANY CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS INHERENT IN THE EAST OR THE WEST. THE EAST WAS IN MANY WAYS MORE ADVANCED IN "CAPITALISTIC" COMMERCE, INVENTIONS AND IN NAVAL POWER (IN CHINA). SHE LISTS OCCURRENCES IN THE VARIOUS SUBSYSTEMS WHICH EXISTED AT THE TIME EVENTUALLY LEADING TO THE "RISE" OF THE WEST. HOW DID THIS SHIFT IN DEVELOPMENT OCCUR? WHAT WEAKNESSES EXISTED IN THE OLD BALANCE? ANSWERING THESE QUESTIONS, SHE SAYS, IS THE ULTIMATE AIM OF HER RESEARCH.

ABSTRACT A sample of 250 students (121) males and (129) females in grades 10-12 participated in this study of their preferred thinking methods. The Methods of Thinking Assessment, which was prepared by Sternberg and Wagner (1991), was used as the data gathering tool. Analysis of data revealed that the preferred methods of thinking were in descending order; legislative, external, hierarchical, judicial, conservative, anarchist, local, internal, monarchic, and global. Also, analysis of data revealed significant differences in all dimensions of the overall score being better for female students; however, no significant differences were found about grade level. Una muestra de 250 estudiantes (121) hombres y (129) mujeres en los grados 10-12 participaron en este estudio de sus métodos de pensamiento preferidos. Los métodos de evaluación del pensamiento que fueron preparados por Sternberg y Wagner (1991) se utilizaron como herramienta de recopilación de datos. El análisis de los datos reveló que los métodos de pensamiento preferidos estaban en orden descendente; legislativo, externo, jerárquico, judicial, conservador, anarquista, local, interno, monárquico y global. Además, el análisis de los datos reveló diferencias significativas en todas las dimensiones de la puntuación general que es mejor para las alumnas.

IntroductionThe status of HIV and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections among incarcerated populations in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and the links between prisons and the HIV epidemic are poorly understood. This review synthesized available HIV and HCV data in prisons in MENA and highlighted opportunities for action.MethodsThe review was based on data generated through the systematic searches of the MENA HIV/AIDS Epidemiology Synthesis Project (2003 to December 15, 2015) and the MENA HCV Epidemiology Synthesis Project (2011 to December 15, 2015). Sources of data included peer‐reviewed publications and country‐level reports and databases.Results and discussionWe estimated a population of 496,000 prisoners in MENA, with drug‐related offences being a major cause for incarceration. Twenty countries had data on HIV among incarcerated populations with a median prevalence of 0.6% in Afghanistan, 6.1% in Djibouti, 0.01% in Egypt, 2.5% in Iran, 0% in Iraq, 0.1% in Jordan, 0.05% in Kuwait, 0.7% in Lebanon, 18.0% in Libya, 0.7% in Morocco, 0.3% in Oman, 1.1% in Pakistan, 0% in Palestine, 1.2% in Saudi Arabia, 0% in Somalia, 5.3% in Sudan and South Sudan, 0.04% in Syria, 0.05% in Tunisia, and 3.5% in Yemen. Seven countries had data on HCV, with a median prevalence of 1.7% in Afghanistan, 23.6% in Egypt, 28.1% in Lebanon, 15.6% in Pakistan, and 37.8% in Iran. Syria and Libya had only one HCV prevalence measure each at 1.5% and 23.7%, respectively. There was strong evidence for injecting drug use and the use of non‐sterile injecting‐equipment in prisons. Incarceration and injecting drugs, use of non‐sterile injecting‐equipment, and tattooing in prisons were found to be independent risk factors for HIV or HCV infections. High levels of sexual risk behaviour, tattooing and use of non‐sterile razors among prisoners were documented.ConclusionsPrisons play an important role in HIV and HCV dynamics in MENA and have facilitated the emergence of large HIV epidemics in at least two countries, Iran and Pakistan. There is evidence for substantial but variable HIV and HCV prevalence, as well as risk behaviour including injecting drug use and unprotected sex among prisoners across countries. These findings highlight the need for comprehensive harm‐reduction strategies in prisons.

The study identifies the contribution of Jordanian civil society institutions to the enhancement of political trends that signify the beginnings of democracy. This leads to constructive and innovative thought by ensuring freedom of opinion and expression, while the absence of democracy generates a state of political and ideological despotism. The loss of basic rights and freedom of individuals negatively affects political stability of countries' religious and moral trends, as well as developmental trends which represent an enhancement of ideological security. Ideological security is a key issue in any society due to its association with the concept of national security. The researchers in this study adopt a quantitative approach in which a questionnaire was used as a tool for data collection. The study sample consisted of 1093 male and female students who were chosen by multistage sampling. The study instrument consisted of two parts: first, the demographic variables; and second, the 24 items that measured the process of enhancing ideological security with its three dimensions. The responses to the items were measured according to the Likert five-point scale. The study had several results. First, there is a low level of contribution from Jordanian civil society institutions to the enhancement of ideological security on the whole, and enhancing each trend in particular. The first part addresses the formation of ideological conceptualization, while the second part focuses on analyzing the dimensions of societal processing with the contribution of religious, educational, familial, security, and media institutions, whereas the third part emphasizes several future recommendations that are suggested by the researcher. Second, there are no differences in the level of the contribution of Jordanian civil society institutions to the enhancement of political, religious and, moral trends, while there is a difference regarding the level of contribution of Jordanian civil society institutions to the enhancement of developmental trends according to the variable of gender in favor of females. Third, there are differences in the level of contribution of the Jordanian civil society institutions to the enhancement of ideological security for each of the three domains: political, developmental, and religious, in particular, as well as all the domains as a whole in terms of the variable of membership of civil society institutions and these differences were in favor of the students who were not members of these institutions.

This study's purpose was to learn about survivors' raw personal experiences of the Oklahoma City bombing in terms of reported actions, thoughts, and feelings, and to examine the evolution of their feelings with the passage of time, post-disaster. A randomly selected sample of 182 directly-exposed survivors of the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing were interviewed approximately six months after the disaster and asked four open-ended questions about reactions to the bombing and to reminders of it. Responses to questions were conceptually divided, providing structure for a subsequent qualitative content analysis. Initial thoughts and actions at the time of the bomb blast included efforts to make sense of what was happening and helping themselves and others to safety. Feelings evolved in type and intensity, with varied time courses. Based on these findings, responders, clinicians, and health authorities can anticipate different emotional responses over time, allowing tailoring of mental health interventions to needs.

IntroductionThe recent availability of efficacious prevention interventions among stable couples offers new opportunities for reducing HIV incidence in sub‐Saharan Africa. Understanding the dynamics of HIV incidence among stable couples is critical to inform HIV prevention strategy across sub‐Saharan Africa.MethodsWe quantified the sources of HIV incidence arising among stable couples in sub‐Saharan Africa using a cohort‐type mathematical model parameterized by nationally representative data. Uncertainty and sensitivity analyses were incorporated.ResultsHIV incidence arising among stable concordant HIV‐negative couples contribute each year, on average, 29.4% of total HIV incidence; of those, 22.5% (range: 11.1%–39.8%) are infections acquired by one of the partners from sources external to the couple, less than 1% are infections acquired by both partners from external sources within a year and 6.8% (range: 3.6%–11.6%) are transmissions to the uninfected partner in the couple in less than a year after the other partner acquired the infection from an external source. The mean contribution of stable HIV sero‐discordant couples to total HIV incidence is 30.4%, with most of those, 29.7% (range: 9.1%–47.9%), being due to HIV transmissions from the infected to the uninfected partner within the couple. The remaining incidence, 40.2% (range: 23.7%–64.6%), occurs among persons not in stable couples.ConclusionsClose to two‐thirds of total HIV incidence in sub‐Saharan Africa occur among stable couples; however, only half of this incidence is attributed to HIV transmissions from the infected to the uninfected partner in the couple. The remaining incidence is acquired through extra‐partner sex. Substantial reductions in HIV incidence can be achieved only through a prevention approach that targets all modes of HIV exposure among stable couples and among individuals not in stable couples.

AbstractIntroductionEmerging HIV epidemics have been documented among people who inject drugs (PWID) in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). This study estimates the HIV incidence among PWID due to sharing needles/syringes in MENA. It also delineates injecting drug use role as a driver of the epidemic in the population, and estimates impact of interventions.MethodsA mathematical model of HIV transmission among PWID was applied in seven MENA countries with sufficient and recent epidemiological data and HIV prevalence ≥1% among PWID. Estimations of incident and/or prevalent infections among PWID, ex‐PWID and sexual partners of infected current and ex‐PWID were conducted.ResultsThe estimated HIV incidence rate for 2017 among PWID ranged between 0.7% per person‐year (ppy) in Tunisia and 7.8% ppy in Pakistan, with Libya being an outlier (24.8% ppy). The estimated number of annual new infections was lowest in Tunisia (n = 79) and Morocco (n = 99), and highest in Iran and Pakistan (approximately n = 6700 each). In addition, 20 to 2208 and 5 to 837 new annual infections were estimated across the different countries among sexual partners of PWID and ex‐PWID respectively. Since epidemic emergence, the number of total ever acquired incident infections across countries was 706 to 90,015 among PWID, 99 to 18,244 among sexual partners of PWID, and 16 to 4360 among sexual partners of ex‐PWID. The estimated number of prevalent infections across countries was 341 to 23,279 among PWID, 119 to 16,540 among ex‐PWID, 67 to 10,752 among sexual partners of PWID, and 12 to 2863 among sexual partners of ex‐PWID. Increasing antiretroviral therapy (ART) coverage to the global target of 81% – factoring in ART adherence and current coverage – would avert about half of new infections among PWID and their sexual partners. Combining ART with harm reduction could avert over 90% and 70% of new infections among PWID and their sexual partners respectively.ConclusionsThere is considerable HIV incidence among PWID in MENA. Of all new infections ultimately due to injecting drug use, about 75% are among PWID and the rest among sexual partners. Of all prevalent infections ultimately attributed to injecting drug use as epidemic driver, about half are among PWID, 30% among ex‐PWID and 20% among sexual partners of PWID and ex‐PWID. These findings call for scale‐up of services for PWID, including harm reduction as well as testing and treatment services.