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Bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics following low-level "background" exposure to antimicrobial agents as well as from exposure at therapeutic levels during treatment for bacterial infections. In this review, we look specifically at antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the equine reproductive tract and its possible origin, focusing particularly on antibiotics in semen extenders used in preparing semen doses for artificial insemination. Our review of the literature indicated that AMR in the equine uterus and vagina were reported worldwide in the last 20 years, in locations as diverse as Europe, India, and the United States. Bacteria colonizing the mucosa of the reproductive tract are transferred to semen during collection ; further contamination of the semen may occur during processing, despite strict attention to hygiene at critical control points. These bacteria compete with spermatozoa for nutrients in the semen extender, producing metabolic byproducts and toxins that have a detrimental effect on sperm quality. Potential pathogens such as Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa may occasionally cause fertility issues in inseminated mares. Antibiotics are added during semen processing, according to legislation, to impede the growth of these microorganisms but may have a detrimental effect on sperm quality, depending on the antimicrobial agent and concentration used. However, this addition of antibiotics is counter to current recommendations on the prudent use of antibiotics, which recommend that antibiotics should be used only for therapeutic purposes and after establishing bacterial sensitivity. There is some evidence of resistance among bacteria found in semen samples. Potential alternatives to the addition of antibiotics are considered, especially physical removal separation of spermatozoa from bacteria. Suggestions for further research with colloid centrifugation are provided.

Antibiotics are added to semen extenders to be used for artificial insemination (AI) in livestock breeding to control bacterial contamination in semen arising during collection and processing. The antibiotics to be added and their concentrations for semen for international trade are specified by government directives. Since the animal production industry uses large quantities of semen for artificial insemination, large amounts of antibiotics are currently used in semen extenders. Possible alternatives to antibiotics are discussed, including physical removal of the bacteria during semen processing, as well as the development of novel antimicrobials. Colloid centrifugation, particularly Single Layer Centrifugation, when carried out with a strict aseptic technique, offers a feasible method for reducing bacterial contamination in semen and is a practical method for semen processing laboratories to adopt. However, none of these alternatives to antibiotics should replace strict attention to hygiene during semen collection and handling.

Simple SummaryBacteria can develop resistance to antibiotics, resulting in the appearance of infections that are difficult or impossible to treat. This ability enables bacteria to survive in hostile environments and can result from exposure to even small amounts of antibiotic substances. Bacteria are present in the reproductive tract of the horse; they can develop resistance to antibiotics, because the animal has been treated for an infection, or due to insemination with a semen dose that contains antibiotics. Bacteria colonize the membrane lining the male reproductive tract and are transferred to the semen during collection. They can cause sperm quality to deteriorate during storage or may cause an infection in the mare. Therefore, antibiotics are added to the semen dose, according to legislation. However, these antibiotics may contribute to the development of resistance. Current recommendations are that antibiotics should only be used to treat bacterial infections and where the sensitivity of the bacterium to the antibiotic has first been established. Therefore, adding antibiotics to semen extenders does not fit these recommendations. In this review, we examine the effects of bacteria in semen and in the inseminated mare, and possible alternatives to their use.Bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics following low-level "background " exposure to antimicrobial agents as well as from exposure at therapeutic levels during treatment for bacterial infections. In this review, we look specifically at antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the equine reproductive tract and its possible origin, focusing particularly on antibiotics in semen extenders used in preparing semen doses for artificial insemination. Our review of the literature indicated that AMR in the equine uterus and vagina were reported worldwide in the last 20 years, in locations as diverse as Europe, India, and the United States. Bacteria colonizing the mucosa of the reproductive tract are transferred to semen during collection; further contamination of the semen may occur during processing, despite strict attention to hygiene at critical control points. These bacteria compete with spermatozoa for nutrients in the semen extender, producing metabolic byproducts and toxins that have a detrimental effect on sperm quality. Potential pathogens such as Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa may occasionally cause fertility issues in inseminated mares. Antibiotics are added during semen processing, according to legislation, to impede the growth of these microorganisms but may have a detrimental effect on sperm quality, depending on the antimicrobial agent and concentration used. However, this addition of antibiotics is counter to current recommendations on the prudent use of antibiotics, which recommend that antibiotics should be used only for therapeutic purposes and after establishing bacterial sensitivity. There is some evidence of resistance among bacteria found in semen samples. Potential alternatives to the addition of antibiotics are considered, especially physical removal separation of spermatozoa from bacteria. Suggestions for further research with colloid centrifugation are provided.

SIMPLE SUMMARY: Bacteria can develop resistance to antibiotics, resulting in the appearance of infections that are difficult or impossible to treat. This ability enables bacteria to survive in hostile environments and can result from exposure to even small amounts of antibiotic substances. Bacteria are present in the reproductive tract of the horse; they can develop resistance to antibiotics, because the animal has been treated for an infection, or due to insemination with a semen dose that contains antibiotics. Bacteria colonize the membrane lining the male reproductive tract and are transferred to the semen during collection. They can cause sperm quality to deteriorate during storage or may cause an infection in the mare. Therefore, antibiotics are added to the semen dose, according to legislation. However, these antibiotics may contribute to the development of resistance. Current recommendations are that antibiotics should only be used to treat bacterial infections and where the sensitivity of the bacterium to the antibiotic has first been established. Therefore, adding antibiotics to semen extenders does not fit these recommendations. In this review, we examine the effects of bacteria in semen and in the inseminated mare, and possible alternatives to their use. ABSTRACT: Bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics following low-level "background" exposure to antimicrobial agents as well as from exposure at therapeutic levels during treatment for bacterial infections. In this review, we look specifically at antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the equine reproductive tract and its possible origin, focusing particularly on antibiotics in semen extenders used in preparing semen doses for artificial insemination. Our review of the literature indicated that AMR in the equine uterus and vagina were reported worldwide in the last 20 years, in locations as diverse as Europe, India, and the United States. Bacteria colonizing the mucosa of the reproductive tract are transferred to semen during collection; further ...