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Observational learning is based on a critical assumption that trainees can and do recognize critical modeled behaviors. This assumption has been virtually untested in applied settings. We studied the effects of work experience and instructions on the ability of 59 observers to recognize target behaviors in an observational learning paradigm similar to existing ones. Additionally, we investigated the effects of two key factors that were hypothesized to affect the recognition process in observational learning. The results indicated that only observers who had a minimum of work experience (i.e., intermediate and experienced observers in the study) were able to consistently recognize targeted behaviors. Additionally, recognition was influenced by the level of detail of instructions given to the participants. Finally, characteristics of the modeled behaviors greatly affected recognition: Overall, examples of negative behaviors were better recognized than were positive examples. Behaviors whose consequence was shown were also better recognized than those that were neither reinforced nor punished in the video. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the design of observational learning as a training strategy in complex and applied social learning situations. The applications of this work include the design of training, and the training of evaluators and observers.

In their critique of our research, Sanderson and Benda (1998, this issue) suggest several concerns with our characterization and utilization of the Exploratory Sequential Data Analysis (ESDA) approach. In this response, we consider each of the concerns in the context of training needs analysis. We conclude that the ESDA framework appears to hold promise as a training needs analysis tool. However, further dialogue between the experts in the ESDA approach and those in training is required to realize this potential.

ObjectiveWe investigated the effects of active stereoscopic simulation-based training and individual differences in video game experience on multiple indices of combat identification (CID) performance.BackgroundFratricide is a major problem in combat operations involving military vehicles. In this research, we aimed to evaluate the effects of training on CID performance in order to reduce fratricide errors.MethodIndividuals were trained on 12 combat vehicles in a simulation, which were presented via either a non-stereoscopic or active stereoscopic display using NVIDIA's GeForce shutter glass technology. Self-report was used to assess video game experience, leading to four between-subjects groups: high video game experience with stereoscopy, low video game experience with stereoscopy, high video game experience without stereoscopy, and low video game experience without stereoscopy. We then tested participants on their memory of each vehicle's alliance and name across multiple measures, including photographs and videos.ResultsThere was a main effect for both video game experience and stereoscopy across many of the dependent measures. Further, we found interactions between video game experience and stereoscopic training, such that those individuals with high video game experience in the non-stereoscopic group had the highest performance outcomes in the sample on multiple dependent measures.ConclusionThis study suggests that individual differences in video game experience may be predictive of enhanced performance in CID tasks.ApplicationSelection based on video game experience in CID tasks may be a useful strategy for future military training. Future research should investigate the generalizability of these effects, such as identification through unmanned vehicle sensors.

This paper reports a detailed analysis of over 300 civilian incident reports that identified whether loss of situation awareness (SA) was related to air crew role assignment. The results indicate (a) that loss of SA is responsible for an incident more often when the captain is at the controls than when the first officer (FO) is at the controls, and (b) that the pilot flying (PF) is more likely to lose situation awareness than the pilot not flying (PNF). As a result, captains lose SA more often across aircraft types, flight segments, and weather conditions when they are the PF than when they are the PNF. The results also suggest that the person who is flying commits more of the critical errors that lead to an incident. Together, the results indicate that captains lose SA more often and make more tactical errors when they are at the controls than when they are not. Applications of this research include aircrew training, procedure development, and accident/incident analysis.

Several models of team performance have suggested that a clearer understanding of team process is needed to determine better training formats and reduce crew-generated errors. The present study investigated the degree to which analyzing communication sequences would contribute to the understanding of effective crew process in two simulated flight tasks. The results indicate that pattern analyses reveal additional strong differences between performance groups that would have been overlooked by simple frequency counts of communication. In each case, the sequential analysis shed additional light on the communication patterns that characterize better-performing teams. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for team performance research and team training. Potential applications of this research include training needs assessment, training design, and performance measurement after training.

Objective: A measure of play experience in video games was developed through literature review and two empirical validation studies. Background: Despite the considerable attention given to games in the behavioral sciences, play experience remains empirically underexamined. One reason for this gap is the absence of a scale that measures play experience. Method: In Study 1, the initial Play Experience Scale (PES) was tested through an online validation that featured three different games ( N = 203). In Study 2, a revised PES was assessed with a serious game in the laboratory ( N = 77). Results: Through principal component analysis of the Study 1 data, the initial 20-item PES was revised, resulting in the 16-item PES-16. Study 2 showed the PES-16 to be a robust instrument with the same patterns of correlations as in Study 1 via (a) internal consistency estimates, (b) correlations with established scales of motivation, (c) distributions of PES-16 scores in different game conditions, and (d) examination of the average variance extracted of the PES and the Intrinsic Motivation Scale. Conclusion: We suggest that the PES is appropriate for use in further validation studies. Additional examinations of the scale are required to determine its applicability to other contexts and its relationship with other constructs. Application: The PES is potentially relevant to human factors undertakings involving video games, including basic research into play, games, and learning; prototype testing; and exploratory learning studies.