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For over 100 years, popular and scientific communities have suggested that colours have psychological and affective implications (Kaya & Epps, 2004; Major, 1895; Wexner, 1954). Yet, most claims remain unsubstantiated, including the assumption that the actual perception of colour is a key ingredient to any such supposed implication. Since 2015, we have been systematically studying and publishing results on colour-emotion associations for colour terms and colour patches using the same overall methodology, testing different populations. We could already show that emotion associations with colour terms are highly consistent across different cultures, but that consistencies are even higher when cultures share borders and languages (Jonauskaite, Abdel-Khalek, et al., 2019; Jonauskaite, Abu-Akel, et al., 2020; Jonauskaite, Wicker, et al., 2019). For a Swiss sample, we also found high consistencies for emotion associations with colour terms and colour patches (Jonauskaite, Parraga, et al., 2020). These results indicate that such associations are majorly driven by conceptual mechanism.

To elaborate on this latter point, we manipulated perceptual colour experience by testing individuals with and without congenital red-green colour-blindness. The first group experiences colour perception deficiencies, but both groups' conceptual knowledge is comparable. We asked congenital red-green colour-blind (n = 64) and non-colour-blind (n = 66) men to associate 12 colours with 20 emotion concepts, and rate the emotion intensities. About half of each group provided associations with colour terms, the remainder with colour patches. We found that colour-blind and non-colour-blind men associated similar emotions with colours, irrespective of whether colours were conveyed via terms (r = .82) or patches (r = .80). No differences occurred when we categorised emotions according to valence, arousal, and power. Of interest, the colour-emotion associations and the emotion intensities were not modulated by participants' severity of colour-blindness (CBI). Hinting at some additional, although minor, role of actual colour perception, the consistencies in associations for words and patches were higher in non-colour-blind than colour-blind men.

Together, these results suggest that colour-emotion associations in adults are driven more importantly by conceptual mechanisms than direct perceptual experience of colour. Therefore, intact colour vision is not essential for having shared colour-emotion associations. The current findings add to a growing body of literature that colour-emotion associations represent another psychological universal.

For over 100 years, popular and scientific communities have suggested that colours have psychological and affective implications (Kaya & Epps, 2004; Major, 1895; Wexner, 1954). Yet, most claims remain unsubstantiated, including the assumption that the actual perception of colour is a key ingredient to any such supposed implication. Since 2015, we have been systematically studying and publishing results on colour-emotion associations for colour terms and colour patches using the same overall methodology, testing different populations. We could already show that emotion associations with colour terms are highly consistent across different cultures, but that consistencies are even higher when cultures share borders and languages (Jonauskaite, Abdel-Khalek, et al., 2019; Jonauskaite, Abu-Akel, et al., 2020; Jonauskaite, Wicker, et al., 2019). For a Swiss sample, we also found high consistencies for emotion associations with colour terms and colour patches (Jonauskaite, Parraga, et al., 2020). These results indicate that such associations are majorly driven by conceptual mechanism.

To elaborate on this latter point, we manipulated perceptual colour experience by testing individuals with and without congenital red-green colour-blindness. The first group experiences colour perception deficiencies, but both groups' conceptual knowledge is comparable. We asked congenital red-green colour-blind (n = 64) and non-colour-blind (n = 66) men to associate 12 colours with 20 emotion concepts, and rate the emotion intensities. About half of each group provided associations with colour terms, the remainder with colour patches. We found that colour-blind and non-colour-blind men associated similar emotions with colours, irrespective of whether colours were conveyed via terms (r = .82) or patches (r = .80). No differences occurred when we categorised emotions according to valence, arousal, and power. Of interest, the colour-emotion associations and the emotion intensities were not modulated by participants' severity of colour-blindness (CBI). Hinting at some additional, although minor, role of actual colour perception, the consistencies in associations for words and patches were higher in non-colour-blind than colour-blind men.

Together, these results suggest that colour-emotion associations in adults are driven more importantly by conceptual mechanisms than direct perceptual experience of colour. Therefore, intact colour vision is not essential for having shared colour-emotion associations. The current findings add to a growing body of literature that colour-emotion associations represent another psychological universal.

In 2015, an ambiguous picture of a Dress triggered popular and scientific interest as different people perceive it having widely different colours. To help understand this phenomenon, we performed two studies. First, few days after the Dress appeared on the Internet, we projected the Dress to 240 students on a large screen (Experiment 1). The distribution of different colour perceivers partially confirms previous reports with the majority reporting seeing the Dress in blue and black (B&B; 48%) or white and gold (W&G; 38%). The third group of blue and brown (B&Br; 7%) viewers also emerged, and is worth further consideration. In a second, laboratory study, 57 participants used a computerized colour picker to precisely match colours of small squares (a) and vertical strips (b) cut out of the Dress picture, and the original Dress picture (c) (Experiment 2). Results indicated that lightness and chroma values of matched colours changed from B&B to B&Br to W&G viewers in contextualized images (b, c) only. Irrespective of viewer type or context conditions, the hues of the matched colours were either blue-purple (light parts of the Dress) or orange-yellow (dark parts). Finally, colours matched by B&B viewers were the closest to the colours displayed on the ambiguous Dress picture as compared to other viewer types. Our research supports the notion that the Dress effect emerges from differences in perceived lightness and chroma, but not hue. This phenomenon only occurs when all aspects of the picture are integrated, highlighting the importance of contextual information within the ambiguous Dress image.

In 2015, an ambiguous picture of a Dress triggered popular and scientific interest as different people perceive it having widely different colours. To help understand this phenomenon, we performed two studies. First, few days after the Dress appeared on the Internet, we projected the Dress to 240 students on a large screen (Experiment 1). The distribution of different colour perceivers partially confirms previous reports with the majority reporting seeing the Dress in blue and black (B&B; 48%) or white and gold (W&G; 38%). The third group of blue and brown (B&Br; 7%) viewers also emerged, and is worth further consideration. In a second, laboratory study, 57 participants used a computerized colour picker to precisely match colours of small squares (a) and vertical strips (b) cut out of the Dress picture, and the original Dress picture (c) (Experiment 2). Results indicated that lightness and chroma values of matched colours changed from B&B to B&Br to W&G viewers in contextualized images (b, c) only. Irrespective of viewer type or context conditions, the hues of the matched colours were either blue-purple (light parts of the Dress) or orange-yellow (dark parts). Finally, colours matched by B&B viewers were the closest to the colours displayed on the ambiguous Dress picture as compared to other viewer types. Our research supports the notion that the Dress effect emerges from differences in perceived lightness and chroma, but not hue. This phenomenon only occurs when all aspects of the picture are integrated, highlighting the importance of contextual information within the ambiguous Dress image.

In 2015, we launched the data collection on our international colour-emotion association survey. The data is collected online (https://www2.unil.ch/onlinepsylab/colour/main.php). We invite participants to complete the survey in their native language. At the end of 2017, we had translated and back-translated the survey into 37 languages. Additional translations are ongoing or are waiting for opportunities (new collaborators). For each country or language group within a country, we aim for complete data from about 100 participants, roughly equally distributed between three age ranges (18-30 years; 31-50 years; > 50 years). Also, we do not treat the data set without having at least 25 valid responses in each age group. Thus, we treat each sample when these conditions are met. On the current webpage, we only publish data of completed countries. We here use country of origin (not country of residence) as variable to group participants into discrete clusters per country. Different groupings can be obtained from the complete dataset.

In 2015, we launched the data collection on our international colour-emotion association survey. The data is collected online (https://www2.unil.ch/onlinepsylab/colour/main.php). We invite participants to complete the survey in their native language. At the end of 2017, we had translated and back-translated the survey into 37 languages. Additional translations are ongoing or are waiting for opportunities (new collaborators). For each country or language group within a country, we aim for complete data from about 100 participants, roughly equally distributed between three age ranges (18-30 years; 31-50 years; > 50 years). Also, we do not treat the data set without having at least 25 valid responses in each age group. Thus, we treat each sample when these conditions are met. On the current webpage, we only publish data of completed countries. We here use country of origin (not country of residence) as variable to group participants into discrete clusters per country. Different groupings can be obtained from the complete dataset.

In 2015, we launched the data collection on our international colour-emotion association survey. The data is collected online (https://www2.unil.ch/onlinepsylab/colour/main.php). We invite participants to complete the survey in their native language. At the end of 2017, we had translated and back-translated the survey into 37 languages. Additional translations are ongoing or are waiting for opportunities (new collaborators). For each country or language group within a country, we aim for complete data from about 100 participants, roughly equally distributed between three age ranges (18-30 years; 31-50 years; > 50 years). Also, we do not treat the data set without having at least 25 valid responses in each age group. Thus, we treat each sample when these conditions are met. On the current webpage, we only publish data of completed countries. We here use country of origin (not country of residence) as variable to group participants into discrete clusters per country. Different groupings can be obtained from the complete dataset.

In 2015, we launched the data collection on our international colour-emotion association survey. The data is collected online (https://www2.unil.ch/onlinepsylab/colour/main.php). We invite participants to complete the survey in their native language. At the end of 2017, we had translated and back-translated the survey into 37 languages. Additional translations are ongoing or are waiting for opportunities (new collaborators). For each country or language group within a country, we aim for complete data from about 100 participants, roughly equally distributed between three age ranges (18-30 years; 31-50 years; > 50 years). Also, we do not treat the data set without having at least 25 valid responses in each age group. Thus, we treat each sample when these conditions are met. On the current webpage, we only publish data of completed countries. We here use country of origin (not country of residence) as variable to group participants into discrete clusters per country. Different groupings can be obtained from the complete dataset.

In 2015, we launched the data collection on our international colour-emotion association survey. The data is collected online (https://www2.unil.ch/onlinepsylab/colour/main.php). We invite participants to complete the survey in their native language. At the end of 2017, we had translated and back-translated the survey into 37 languages. Additional translations are ongoing or are waiting for opportunities (new collaborators). For each country or language group within a country, we aim for complete data from about 100 participants, roughly equally distributed between three age ranges (18-30 years; 31-50 years; > 50 years). Also, we do not treat the data set without having at least 25 valid responses in each age group. Thus, we treat each sample when these conditions are met. On the current webpage, we only publish data of completed countries. We here use country of origin (not country of residence) as variable to group participants into discrete clusters per country. Different groupings can be obtained from the complete dataset.

In 2015, we launched the data collection on our international colour-emotion association survey. The data is collected online (https://www2.unil.ch/onlinepsylab/colour/main.php). We invite participants to complete the survey in their native language. At the end of 2017, we had translated and back-translated the survey into 37 languages. Additional translations are ongoing or are waiting for opportunities (new collaborators). For each country or language group within a country, we aim for complete data from about 100 participants, roughly equally distributed between three age ranges (18-30 years; 31-50 years; > 50 years). Also, we do not treat the data set without having at least 25 valid responses in each age group. Thus, we treat each sample when these conditions are met. On the current webpage, we only publish data of completed countries. We here use country of origin (not country of residence) as variable to group participants into discrete clusters per country. Different groupings can be obtained from the complete dataset.

In 2015, we launched the data collection on our international colour-emotion association survey. The data is collected online (https://www2.unil.ch/onlinepsylab/colour/main.php). We invite participants to complete the survey in their native language. At the end of 2017, we had translated and back-translated the survey into 37 languages. Additional translations are ongoing or are waiting for opportunities (new collaborators). For each country or language group within a country, we aim for complete data from about 100 participants, roughly equally distributed between three age ranges (18-30 years; 31-50 years; > 50 years). Also, we do not treat the data set without having at least 25 valid responses in each age group. Thus, we treat each sample when these conditions are met. On the current webpage, we only publish data of completed countries. We here use country of origin (not country of residence) as variable to group participants into discrete clusters per country. Different groupings can be obtained from the complete dataset.

In 2015, we launched the data collection on our international colour-emotion association survey. The data is collected online (https://www2.unil.ch/onlinepsylab/colour/main.php). We invite participants to complete the survey in their native language. At the end of 2017, we had translated and back-translated the survey into 37 languages. Additional translations are ongoing or are waiting for opportunities (new collaborators). For each country or language group within a country, we aim for complete data from about 100 participants, roughly equally distributed between three age ranges (18-30 years; 31-50 years; > 50 years). Also, we do not treat the data set without having at least 25 valid responses in each age group. Thus, we treat each sample when these conditions are met. On the current webpage, we only publish data of completed countries. We here use country of origin (not country of residence) as variable to group participants into discrete clusters per country. Different groupings can be obtained from the complete dataset.

In 2015, we launched the data collection on our international colour-emotion association survey. The data is collected online (https://www2.unil.ch/onlinepsylab/colour/main.php). We invite participants to complete the survey in their native language. At the end of 2017, we had translated and back-translated the survey into 37 languages. Additional translations are ongoing or are waiting for opportunities (new collaborators). For each country or language group within a country, we aim for complete data from about 100 participants, roughly equally distributed between three age ranges (18-30 years; 31-50 years; > 50 years). Also, we do not treat the data set without having at least 25 valid responses in each age group. Thus, we treat each sample when these conditions are met. On the current webpage, we only publish data of completed countries. We here use country of origin (not country of residence) as variable to group participants into discrete clusters per country. Different groupings can be obtained from the complete dataset.

In 2015, we launched the data collection on our international colour-emotion association survey. The data is collected online (https://www2.unil.ch/onlinepsylab/colour/main.php). We invite participants to complete the survey in their native language. At the end of 2017, we had translated and back-translated the survey into 37 languages. Additional translations are ongoing or are waiting for opportunities (new collaborators). For each country or language group within a country, we aim for complete data from about 100 participants, roughly equally distributed between three age ranges (18-30 years; 31-50 years; > 50 years). Also, we do not treat the data set without having at least 25 valid responses in each age group. Thus, we treat each sample when these conditions are met. On the current webpage, we only publish data of completed countries. We here use country of origin (not country of residence) as variable to group participants into discrete clusters per country. Different groupings can be obtained from the complete dataset.

In 2015, we launched the data collection on our international colour-emotion association survey. The data is collected online (https://www2.unil.ch/onlinepsylab/colour/main.php). We invite participants to complete the survey in their native language. At the end of 2017, we had translated and back-translated the survey into 37 languages. Additional translations are ongoing or are waiting for opportunities (new collaborators). For each country or language group within a country, we aim for complete data from about 100 participants, roughly equally distributed between three age ranges (18-30 years; 31-50 years; > 50 years). Also, we do not treat the data set without having at least 25 valid responses in each age group. Thus, we treat each sample when these conditions are met. On the current webpage, we only publish data of completed countries. We here use country of origin (not country of residence) as variable to group participants into discrete clusters per country. Different groupings can be obtained from the complete dataset.