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The article begins by summarizing sociological approaches to (1) ecologically unequal exchange, and (2) foreign investment dependence and environmental load displacement. These areas of sociological inquiry consist of structural theories and cross-national statistical analyses that test hypotheses derived from both approaches. It concludes by briefly describing sociological research on global civil society and the environment, with a focus on the world society approach to environmental change. This area of theory and research provides some insights on ways in which global and transnational civil society groups, such as environmental international nongovernmental organizations, can partially mitigate the environmental harms caused by ecologically unequal exchanges and environmental load displacements.Key words: ecologically unequal exchange, environmental load displacement, foreign investment dependence

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This article engages multiple perspectives to consider how forms of world-economic integration allow for developed countries to treat less developed countries as supply depots to satisfy their unsustainable resource consumption levels. Particular attention is paid to the role of ecologically unequal exchange relationships in the mode of the vertical flow of exports and the transnational organization of extraction and production in the context of foreign investment dependence. It is argued that these interrelationships in the primary sector contribute to deforestation in less developed countries. Following theoretical discussions, regression analyses are conducted to assess the validity of the proposed relationships. Results suggest that both types of integration do contribute to deforestation in less developed countries, net of other factors. Ultimately, this research suggests that the structure of the world-economy allows for developed countries to externalize their consumption-based environmental costs, which often leads to increased environmental degradation in many less developed countries.

Abstract Political‐economic sociologists have long investigated the dynamics and consequences of international trade. With few exceptions, this area of inquiry ignores the possible connections between trade and environmental degradation. In contrast, environmental sociologists have made several assumptions about the environmental impacts of international trade, but the assumptions lack theoretical specificity and are thus empirically under‐investigated. Bridging these two complementary areas of macrosociology, the present study proposes and tests a structural theory of unequal ecological exchange. The theory posits that more‐developed countries externalize their consumption‐based environmental costs to less‐developed countries, which increase forms of environmental degradation within the latter. To test a key assertion of the theory, a weighted index of vertical trade is created that quantifies the relative extent to which exports are sent to more‐developed countries. Using the index, cross‐national panel analyses of deforestation, 1990–2000 are conducted to test the hypothesis that less‐developed countries with higher levels of exports sent to more‐developed countries experience greater rates of deforestation, net of other factors. Results of the analyses confirm the hypothesis, providing support for the theory of uneven ecological exchange. Additional findings correspond with other sociological studies of deforestation, particularly those that focus on the effects of rural and urban population growth as well as level of capital intensity and rate of economic development.

Objective-This study attempts to increase our understanding of the environmental impacts of the transnational organization of production in the context of foreign capital penetration. Methods-With a sample of 53 countries, panel analyses using OLS and robust regression are conducted to assess the effects of foreign direct investment in the manufacturing sector on growth in organic water pollution intensity, 1980-1995. Slope-dummy interaction variables are used to compare the effects in developed countries and less-developed countries. The tested models include a variety of relevant controls, such as domestic investment, state environmentalism, size of the manufacturing sector, and level of economic development. Results-Findings for the analyses indicate that foreign direct investment in manufacturing positively affects growth in organic water pollution intensity in less-developed countries, while the effect in developed countries is nonsignificant. Conclusions-This research illustrates the need for social scientists to investigate the environmental impacts of both the transnational organization of production and the overall scale of production in different sectors. Tables, 3, References. Adapted from the source document.

What are the effects of increased stuctural integration of international trade on the environment of relatively poorer countries, particularly in the southern hemisphere? This is the key question addressed by Corey Lofdahl in his book Environmental Impacts of Globalization and Trade:A Systems Study. Given the theme for this special issue of the Journal of World-Systems Research, a discussion and evaluation of this book seems rather timely and relevant. An immediate fact of interest is that Lofdahl is not an environmental sociologist, let alone acquainted with relevant empirical works grounded in a world-systems perspective. Rather, he is trained as a political scientist, and works in the simulation and information technology sector.

Purpose
Recent sociological research highlights the growth of military expenditures in hi-tech, capital-intensive armaments and technology. The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of these capital-intensive expenditures on two related health outcomes: under-five mortality and life expectancy.


Design/methodology/approach
This research utilizes a series of cross-national panel models estimated for a diverse sample of developed and less-developed countries from 1975 to 2000.


Findings
The authors find that hi-tech military expenditures increase under-five mortality and reduce life expectancy over the period studied, by reducing the number and type of soldiers able to take advantage of increased health-related resources obtained in the military and indirectly, by increasing income inequality, which negatively impacts these health outcomes.


Research limitations/implications
This cross-national study should be supplemented by case studies to better understand the processes being examined.


Practical implications
The increase in capital-intensive military expenditures found worldwide reduces the total number of soldiers in the military and raises their enlistment requirements. This makes it difficult for people with limited human capital to take advantage of the military's traditional pathway for upward mobility. New pathways for mobility will have to be developed to avoid the creation of a new permanent underclass.


Social implications
There are significant social policy implications for the findings. Hi-tech military expenditures have a significant negative impact on the short- and long-term health outcomes of children and adults, in both developed and less-developed countries, which must be addressed by public policy planners.


Originality/value
This is one of a handful of sociological studies on the impact of military establishment on society. These findings highlight the importance of "bringing the military back in" to the forefront of sociological research.