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"Simulation is an umbrella term that covers some
interesting active-learning strategies—including role playing,
simulation exercise and games and computer models—that allow
students to practice and apply their learning" (Meyers and Jones
1993, 89; italics in the original). As
this quote indicates, educational exercises, simulations give
students the chance to apply theory, develop critical skills, and
provide a welcome relief from the everyday tasks of reading and
preparing for classes. Students "put on the skin" of another person
and participate in the learning process. For the social sciences,
where there are few absolutes or certainties, students can
investigate the major questions of the discipline experientially.
Comparison, analysis, and evaluation by students are the natural
outcomes of this learning environment (Bain 2004; Meyers and Jones 1993).
Simulations have become increasingly popular in the teaching of
social sciences and, when done properly, they are effective.
Shifting the focus from the teacher to the student provides more
immediate feedback to the student than a lecture and exam some time
in the future. Students immersed in the "game world" must actively
demonstrate their grasp of the subject. As members of teams,
students have increased accountability as well as assistance from
their peers in learning (Bain 2004;
Wheeler 2006). In addition to engaging
students, simulations make complex theories clearer. Active
participation in the knowledge experience, as opposed to being a
passive observer, allows students to experiment and build their own
knowledge base. A number of studies have shown that this approach
increases comprehension, builds critical thinking skills, and
improves retention (Asal 2005; Krain and
Lantis 2006).

In their 1979 article, Kahneman and Tversky introduced the world to the prospect theory of decision-making under risk as a critique of expected utility theory and its emphasis on final assets. Critics have noted that despite successful replications, its application outside the experimental arena is questionable. This article answers these critics by developing a formal model and theory of framing within prospect theory. Starting with an expected utility model, elements of risk, change and risk attitude are introduced in the context of the decision-maker's belief sets and assumptions. The result is a finding that framing works because individual expectations shift when confidence in assumptions about the problem change. In conclusion, a number of analytic tools are applied to explore the dynamics of the model and the effect of changing a decision-maker's view of the world and perception of a specific problem.

In their 1979 article, Kahneman & Tversky introduced the world to the prospect theory of decision-making under risk as a critique of expected utility theory & its emphasis on final assets. Critics have noted that despite successful replications, its application outside the experimental arena is questionable. This article answers these critics by developing a formal model & theory of framing within prospect theory. Starting with an expected utility model, elements of risk, change & risk attitude are introduced in the context of the decision-maker's belief sets & assumptions. The result is a finding that framing works because individual expectations shift when confidence in assumptions about the problem change. In conclusion, a number of analytic tools are applied to explore the dynamics of the model & the effect of changing a decision-maker's view of the world & perception of a specific problem. 2 Tables, 7 Figures, 59 References. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd., copyright 2005.]

An actor's frame of reference significantly affects that actor's risk attitude. Although the frame of reference is often taken as a given, earlier work shows it to be the result of an actor's assumptions and beliefs, which can be manipulated by a second actor in a bargaining situation. As modeled here, confidence in selected assumptions can be manipulated by one of two means: changing the confidence of the actor about the future domain, and getting the actor to adopt a particular domain by discounting the utility of a course of action. Both methods force a change in the perceived domain and a shift in risk attitude. In addition to showing manipulation of an actor's frame, the model adds to our understanding of Kahneman and Tversky's original expression of prospect theory.

The design & incorporation of a simulation that illustrates how domestic politics influence national security policy, especially those processes regarding the creation of government budgets, is considered. An overview of the relationship between government budgets & national security in the contemporary US is presented, highlighting the various factors & departments that influence budget creation. After contemplating the advantages of utilizing simulations in teaching political processes, several issues that required attention during the design of the "Planning, Programming, & Budgeting System" simulation are addressed. The substantive & procedural preparations required to familiarize the students with active role-playing are then discussed. In addition, various aspects of the simulation design are examined including the focus of the simulation, the introduction of different phases, the description of students' roles, & the provision of feedback concerning students' performance & attitudes toward budgeting procedures. Several lessons that students should learn from this simulation are also identified, eg, presidents possess little control over negotiations & debates between political actors & the media significantly affects public delineations of budget issues. 18 References. J. W. Parker