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Eight conflict handling styles emerged as statistically unidimensional in the development of this new model: avoiding/smoothing, obliging, integrating, compromising, dominating, coercing, deceiving, and ingratiating. Scales for these styles were tested for construct validity in dyadic conflict scenarios among peers. Preference for styles were found to vary according to (1) independent and interdependent self-construals, (2) ingroup or outgroup membership, and (3) benefit-issue. Independence correlated positively with integrating and compromising, and negatively with coercion and deception. Interdependence correlated positively with avoiding/smoothing, obliging, compromising, deception, and ingratiation. Subjects were more obliging, integrating, and compromising toward ingroup than outgroup members; and slightly more coercive and deceptive with outgroup than ingroup members. Subjects were more deceptive in other-benefiting issue situations than in self-benefiting ones.

The aim of the research is to examine the relationship between each of four factors affecting life expectancy and life expectancy and thereby provide primary data for government policy. First, the research chose four factors among many factors affecting life expectancy. The four factors chosen are as follows: infant mortality, educational attainment, electric power consumption, and internet. And multiple regression analysis was conducted with data of South Korea drawn from World Bank databank. Regression specification error test (RESET) also conducted so as to check whether a regression model specified is adequate. The findings show that life expectancy has a positive relationship with educational attainment, electric power consumption, and education, while there is a negative relationship between infant mortality and life expectancy. It also shows that an effect of electric power consumption on life expectancy is so weak. But infant mortality has the strongest effect on life expectancy in the four factors. Given that infant mortality reflects a level of health care, it could be assumed that life expectancy in South Korea would be much mediated by health care.

This review attempts to answer the question, "How do individuals develop bicultural identities?" With today's rapid globalization, not only are individuals increasingly mobile but also possess an unprecedented level of psychological interconnectedness. A growing number of cross-cultural researchers have examined the dynamic aspects of individuals' cultural identities and the processes of their formation beyond stereotypical frameworks. Over time, acculturation literature has shifted from being outcome-oriented to being process-oriented. Outcome-oriented frameworks rely on in-groups' judgment toward out-group individuals whereas process-oriented frameworks stress out-group individuals' cultural identity development through an active process of inquiring, learning, and involvements. The outcome-oriented frameworks consist of the notion of "Marginality" and "Social Identity Theory." The process-oriented frameworks consist of the model of "Ethnic Identity Formation," "Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity," "Cognitive Constructivist Approach", and "Cultural Hybridization". "Multidimensional Acculturation Model" is posited as a transitional model between the outcome-oriented framework and the process-oriented framework. Much study has increasingly concentrated on understanding the developmental process of individuals' cultural identities in various situations, rather than categorizing "this new kind of person" based on dominant cultural groups' perceptions. As researchers began to focus on how individuals process biculturalism, negative views have been replaced with positive views. Our review ends with implications regarding how and why biculturals behave in specific ways in intercultural communication situations.

In a recent meta-analysis of attitude-behavior research, the authors of this article found a strong overall attitude-behavior relationship (r = .79) when methodological artifacts are eliminated. The trend in A-B research, however, is to conceive of behavioral intentions (BI) as a mediator between attitudes (A) and behaviors (B). In this study, it is hypothesized that (a) A-BI correlation would be higher than A-B correlation, (b) BI-B correlation would be higher than A-B correlation, (c) A-BI correlation would be higher than BI-B correlation, (d) the variation in BI-B correlations would be greater than that of A-BI, and (e) attitudinal relevance would affect the magnitude of the A-BI correlation. A series of meta-analyses, integrating the findings of 92 A-BI correlations (N = 16,785) and 47 B-BI correlations (N = 10,203) that deal with 19 specified categories and a variety of miscellaneous topics was performed. The results were consistent with all five hypotheses. The theoretical and methodological implications are discussed.

AbstractThe Internet is undergoing a gradual shift from Web 1.0‐based user interaction to Web 2.0, which has a greater emphasis on user‐created content (UCC) and user collaboration (Hsu & Hsu, 2008). Since existing models of e‐service quality are likely deficient under Web 2.0, we build on them and test a new framework using 319 users who frequented UCC websites. Among other findings, three service elements together explained 44% of the variance in user satisfaction and 33% of the variance in website usage. These elements were: the provider‐user relationship (customization and participation), the relationship among users (e.g., user empowerment), and user compensation. Copyright © 2012 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of social status of the communicator on communication predispositions of people with different cultural orientations. Based upon independent and interdependent self-construals as individual-level cultural dimensions, people's degrees of two distinct communication orientations (communication apprehension as an avoidance orientation and argumentativeness as an approach orientation) were assessed in a dyad with different status of communicators (professor as high status and classmate as low status). Participants were a total of 702 undergraduates studying in Japan, Hawaii, and the mainland U.S. After reading two hypothetical conversational situations with different status communicators (professor and classmate), participants were asked to rate items measuring two communication constructs (communication apprehension and argumentativeness). The data indicated that individuals showed greater level of argumentativeness in the conversation with a low status communicator (classmate or roommate) than in the conversation with a high status communicator (professor). On the other hand, individuals showed greater level of communication apprehension in the conversation with high status communicator (professor) than in the conversation with low status communicator (classmate or roommate). We also found that, among people of high interdependence, the level of CA was greater in the conversation with the high status communicator than in the conversation with the low status communicator. On the other hand, among people of high interdependence, the level of argumentativeness did not differ in the conversation with the high status communicator as compared with the conversation with the low status communicator.

The primary aim of this study is to test a process model of cultural conflict styles. Specifically, we propose a theoretical framework for illuminating the relationship between individual-level equivalents of cultural variability dimensions and the face-maintenance dimensions, which, in turn, serve as guiding motives or criteria for selecting conflict strategies. In the model, it was predicted that the greater the individual's construal of self as independent, the higher the concern for self-face maintenance, which, in turn, leads to the higher preference for forcing (dominating) conflict styles. In a separate path, it was also predicted that the greater the individual's construal of self as interdependent, the higher the concern for other-face maintenance, which, in turn, leads to the higher preference for nonforcing (obliging, avoiding, integrating, and compromising) conflict styles. Data to test the proposed model were drawn from undergraduates of diverse cultural backgrounds, studying in Hawai'i. After being presented at random with one of the three conflict situations, participants rated the scales measuring conflict styles, face maintenance dimensions, as well as scales to measure the independent and interdependent dimensions of their self-construals. The theoretical path model was supported by the data except for one path. The implications of the model for theory and practice are discussed.