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In the 1860s, the geographer and publisher August Petermann began agitating in Germany for an expedition to the North Pole. Having overcome any number of difficulties, he was finally able to initiate the first polar journey in 1868. The man slated to carry out his plans was the physics student and captain Carl Koldewey who - thirty-two years old at the time - devoted himself to the task with great enthusiasm and persistence. However, he did not succeed in attaining the ambitious geographic goals. The following year, an incomparably better equipped expedition left Bremerhaven on two ships, heading for East Greenland. One of the vessels was crushed by the ice of the East Greenland Current, but with the GERMANIA Koldewey reached the intended coast, where - in 1869/70 - significant geographical investigations as well as a number of other scientific inquiries were carried out. This expedition, which was exemplary from the logistical as well as the scientific point of view, would have served as a basis for further work in the region. Koldewey then set his sights on international cooperation, which was only realized however, ten years later. From 1875 onwards, he was senior official of the Reichinstitut Deutsche Seewarte (German hydrographic office), where he enjoyed international acclaim as a compass expert until his retirement in 1903.

During his career as a seaman, the American naval officer Matthew Fontaine Maury became
aware of the incompleteness of the available meteorological and oceanographic data and the fragmentary knowledge of naval meteorology and oceanography. He unerringly endeavoured to remedy these deficits. He worked toward the improvement of the theoretical training of seamen and carried out the systematic collection and analysis of data on the state of the atmosphere and the oceans. The seamen themselves registered the data, which Maury then evaluated in the naval observatory and used as the basis for producing charts on various subjects. In the period in which intercontinental shipping by sail was reaching its heyday, Maury supplied it with its global oceanographic and meteorological foundations. Thanks to his efforts, the speed and safety of maritime traffic were improved, i.e. his work was of economic significance. His activities culminated in the Brussels Conference of 1853, from which various international organizations emerged. Maury's work and viewpoints were very highly appreciated especially in Germany. His chief work, The Physical Geography of the Sea, was widely consulted. Published again and again in new and improved editions, this in-depth work was to an extent controversial among experts in the field. In any case, it had a substantial influence on the development of meteorology and oceanography.

The article focuses on meteorology and geomagnetics and their growing significance in the nineteenth century, and discusses the substantial impact of these complex sciences on the economy. In both cases it became obvious that data from higher latitudes was essential for further progress in the respective discipline - a circumstance which served as a strong catalyst for the realization of polar expeditions. However, what was needed was isochronal data of the kind that could only be obtained with a sufficient number of circumpolar observation sites located - to the extent possible - at equal distances from one another. This task exceeded the capacities of individual countries; international cooperation became a must, and the first International Polar Year was carried out in 1882/83. In the course of the International Polar Years I, II (1932/33) and III (International Geophysical Year 1957/58), the focus of scientific interest broadened to include ever higher layers of the atmosphere. The first satellites were employed, and the threshold to outer space thus crossed. The fourth Polar Year (2007-09) did not follow this trend. Instead, it concentrated strongly on researching the changes in the biosphere brought about by man. The article is interspersed with reflections on the interrelationship between politics and science which played a major role in the development of the exemplary Antarctic Treaty Systems.

The conclusion of this essay could be expressed as follows: Kant was a scientist at heart. His early lectures on geography and oceanography as well as his publications on geophysics, meteorology, astronomy, etc. set new standards in terms of their educational, social, political and scientific approach. During the 1750s they were completely abreast of current developments in professional research. With regard to geography, it is clear that Kant was struggling to find a systematic method. As the years progressed, he is likely to have realized that improving the system would not be easy. When assessing Kant and his scientific work, one must always bear in mind that he was possessed by a considerable urge to engage in scientific research, and that he set very high standards for himself. Until well into the 1760s, he could still certainly have become a physicist and geoscientist, and the fact that he ended up specializing in theoretical philosophy certainly has a great deal to do with his previous education. This would also explain why he does not employ mathematical means to solve problems in his scientific writings but rather tends to avoid them. The question as to whether Kant had an influence on today's natural sciences is a controversial one. Were his scientific documents of any significance? His work is indeed distinctive for its visionary approach, but whether this was of any help to the natural scientists in around 1800 is generally regarded as doubtful. The question as to whether Kantian philosophy had any influence on the natural sciences is usually answered in the affirmative, however: Kant is described as the leading authority of the Enlightenment. His influence on social and political developments is emphasized, and linked to progress made in the natural sciences. One fact is perplexing, however: Major research libraries have no books by, or about, Kant, quite clearly indicating that Kant's philosophical writings have never been read by natural scientists. Kant abandoned his lectures on mathematics and physics in the course of the 1770s, but continued with his geography lectures. The latter formed the basis for his 1772 lecture on anthropology. Kant imbued these lectures with a generally educational and Enlightenment-oriented character rather than a purely scientific one. From Kant's point of view, this limitation was very necessary: It relieved him from the "constraint" of having to undertake active research and publish his work in this sector. In 1798, having already retired as a professor, he published his much-read "Anthropology" (Kant, 1798). He seems to have struggled with a systematization of geography until well into the 1780s but been unable to reach a definitive decision. This circumstance was probably the main reason why no original Kantian "Geography" has come down to us. Kant's influence on oceanography as a part of geography is based on the fact that he was one of the first to recognize the importance of the subject, give lectures on it and captivate generations of students with his enthusiasm for it.

Kritischer Reisebericht über politische und ökonomische Veränderungen in Peru nach dem Amtsantritt der Regierung Belaunde Terry Ende Juli 1980. Darstellung von Zusammenhängen zwischen internem Kolonialismus, Unterentwicklung und wirtschaftlicher Ausbeutung durch multinationale Organisationen und Konzerne

In 1908, the "marine minister" of the German Reich, Alfred von Tirpitz, had the Norddeutsche Lloyd's passenger steamer Hohenzollern ex Kaiser Wilhelm II take him from Marseille to his estates on Sardinia. This meant a deviation from the usual route that represented a fundamental violation of maritime-legal usages and laws to the disadvantage of the passengers and shipping agents; what is worse, however, the ship ran aground in the process and became a "total loss." Both the shipping company and the Reich played down the case, but no plausible explanation was found for the laconic role of the press. The article embeds the core event in technical, political and maritime-historical elucidations.