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The forest sector in the Philippines has the potential to be a major sink for carbon (C). The present study was conducted to evaluate potential forestry mitigation options in the Philippines using the Comprehensive Mitigation Assessment Process (COMAP) model. The baseline scenario assumes that current trends continue up to the year 2030 ('business-as-usual', BAU). Two mitigation scenarios were evaluated: high scenario (HS) and low scenario (LS). The former is patterned largely from the government's forest master plan while the latter assumes a 50% lower success rate of the master plan, The results of the analyses show that by 2030, the total C stock of the Philippine forest sector in the baseline scenario decreases to 814 × 106 Mg C, down by 37% compared to the 1990 level. The C stocks of the HS and LS mitigation scenarios were 22% and 18% higher than the BAU, respectively, of the mitigation options assessed, long rotation plantations and forest protection activities produce the greatest C gain (199 and 104 × 106 Mg, respectively under HS). The not present value (NPV) of benefits is highest in the bioenergy option with $24.48 per Mg C (excluding opportunity costs) at a real discount rate of 12%. However, the investment and life cycle costs are also highest using bioenergy. The study also estimated potential investments needed under the mitigation scenarios. The investment requirement for the LS amounts to $263 × 106 while for the HS it is $748 × 106. Finally, policy issues and decisions that may be useful for the Philippines to evaluate LULUCF mitigation options under the UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol, are identified and discussed.

Community-based forest management (CBFM) is the principal strategy in managing inhabited 'forest land' in the Philippines. It involves the participation of local communities in various forestry activities to achieve sustainable forestry, advance social justice and improve socioeconomic welfare, and promote a stable and healthy environment. This paper analyses the potential benefits of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites to mitigate climate change. The incorporation of trees in farms and landscapes has led to enhanced carbon storage and sequestration. Half a million hectares of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites in the Philippines are estimated to store 25 MtC while sequestering 2.7 MtC annually. Lessons are drawn from three carbon sequestration projects under development using CBFM as the main approach. Income from carbon credits is not sufficient to recover the cost of tree planting. The transaction costs of forestry CDM projects are substantial and could prove to be the greatest barrier to project fruition. Government institutions must find ways to encourage project developers by simplifying rules and regulations for forestry carbon projects. Forest definition must be assessed. Project developers and the government could also explore the voluntary carbon market which is more flexible than the CDM market. Policy and technical studies must be conducted to ascertain the potential of the REDD for CBFM sites in the country. © 2010 Steve Harrison, John Herbohn.

There is a high level of interest in reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation plus (REDD+) carbon (C) financing as a way to accelerate forest conservation and development. However, there is very limited information on the potential costs and benefits of REDD+ in developing countries like the Philippines. In this paper, we estimated the range of likely financial benefits of REDD+ implementation in the country under various forest degradation and mitigation scenarios. Our findings show that reducing the rate of forest degradation by a modest 5 to 15 % annually while increasing the doubling the rate of reforestation to 1.5 % annually could reduce C emissions by up to about 60 million t C by 2030. These are equivalent to US$ 97 to 417 million of mean C credits annually at US$ 5 per ton C. These figures are much higher than the total budget of the government and official development assistance for forestry activities in the country which amounted to US$ 46 million in 2005 and US$ 12 million in 2006, respectively. We conclude that REDD+ C credits could be a significant source of financing for forestry projects in developing countries like the Philippines. © 2012 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

?This book provides valuable lessons that will improve public policy and the quality of decisions that will affect generations to come.?Richard Moss, Senior Director Climate and Energy, United Nations Foundation?An excellent addition to the body of knowledge on adaptation to climate change from the developing world, which has been largely missing until now.?Saleemul Huq, Director, Climate Change Programme, International Institute for Environment and Development?This important volume is a valuable effort on adaptation to climate change that needs to be on the desks of those seeking coping strat

Agriculture-based livelihoods of most upland communities are vulnerable to risks associated with climate variability and extremes. These risks are compounded by the different socio-economic and biophysical factors concerning livelihoods. It is imperative that assessment of these vulnerabilities be comprehensive to capture the different significant factors and an alternative method is the use of capital-based approach. Three upland communities in Sibalom Natural Park (SNP) were surveyed and key informants were interviewed to assess the communities' social vulnerability. Social vulnerability index (SVI) was computed from the thirty nine indicators representing human, natural, social, financial, and physical capital assets. There is high vulnerability owing to the low capital assets among households, thus, it is vital to strengthen education, access to government support, regularity and quality of income sources; increase crop production; and provide basic infrastructure such as roads and bridges to minimize vulnerability.

Projected change in climate in the coming decades adds a layer of complexity in the search for sustainability. Warming temperatures, rising sea levels, changing precipitation patterns and their impacts on natural and human systems could threaten the attainment of development goals. Many countries in Asia and the Pacific are among the most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and there is growing recognition that climate change adaptation must be tackled as an integral part of the development process, for example in mainstreaming climate change adaptation into national plans and programmes. The aim of Chap. 6 is to explore linkages between sustainable development and efforts to address climate change in Asia and the Pacific, particularly focussing in two areas of low carbon development (LCD) pathways for the region, and the importance of natural ecosystems in sustaining the delivery of ecosystem services that are essential for climate change adaptation and mitigation. The challenges posed by climate change will be felt in the coming decades in Asia and the Pacific. In parallel, nations in the region will continue to aspire for sustainable development. Policy makers and development workers must find ways to ensure that both these concerns are addressed synergistically while avoiding negative outcomes. One way to mitigate climate change while pursuing sustainable development is through LCD, which will require negotiations across many stakeholders of governments, non-government agencies, industry and broader communities. In Asia and the Pacific natural ecosystems will continue to play a critical role in addressing climate change adaptation and mitigation. Nations in the region will have to find innovative ways to manage and rehabilitate natural ecosystems for a multiplicity of functions and services. This will involve greater collaboration and communication between scientists and policy makers as well as between natural and social scientists. In many developing countries, there is still very limited empirical information and research needs to be ramped up. North-South and South-South partnerships could help fill the gap.

'Sound and solid case studies on vulnerability and adaptation have been woefully lacking in the international discourse on climate change. This set of books begins to bridge the gap.'Achim Steiner, UN Under-Secretary General and Executive Director of United Nations Environment Programme'Important reading for students and practitioners alike.'Martin Parry, Co-Chair, Working Group II (Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)'Fills an important gap in our understanding ... It is policy-relevant and deserves to be widely read.'Richard Klein, Senior R.

© 2018 Elsevier B.V. The La Mesa Watershed (LMW) is considered as the 'lungs' and the last ecological frontier of the Philippines' National Capital Region, Metro Manila. It is among the many watersheds in the country that suffered from severe deforestation in the past. Nevertheless, over the past few decades, reforestation programs for the LMW have also been initiated. The spatiotemporal monitoring of landscape pattern (composition and configuration) is needed to inform policy and support forward-looking management planning toward landscape sustainability. However, the changes in the landscape pattern of the LMW, including the extent of forest cover loss and gain over the past decades, have not been quantified; hence, this study. We used remote sensing data (Landsat) to classify the land use/land cover of the LMW in 1988, 2002 and 2016. We subsequently used spatial metrics to quantify the changes in the landscape pattern of the watershed. We found that between 1988 and 2002, a period that largely preceded the start of the LMW's major rehabilitation (c. 1999), the watershed had a net forest cover loss of 259 ha. From 2002 to 2016, it had a net forest cover gain of 557 ha. The detected increase in forest cover was supported by the percent tree cover change analysis results based on MODIS data. The deforestation of the LMW resulted in landscape fragmentation as indicated by the decrease in the area of forest and mean forest patch size, and the increase in forest patch density, etc. Forest restoration activities have helped improve the watershed's landscape connectivity as signified by the increase in the area of forest and mean forest patch size, and the decrease in forest patch density, etc. The results also revealed that rapid urbanization has been a major factor driving landscape changes around the LMW, and this requires proactive, forward-looking management planning. Overall, the LMW's case presents some valuable learning experience and insights regarding public-private partnerships toward watershed and forest-related rehabilitation initiatives. On a national scale, the Philippine government has embarked on a massive national greening program. The findings of this study suggest that such efforts could lead to the enhancement of denuded forest areas, if done properly.

Tropical reforestation (TR) has been highlighted as an important intervention for climate change mitigation because of its carbon storage potential. TR can also play other frequently overlooked, but significant, roles in helping society and ecosystems adapt to climate variability and change. For example, reforestation can ameliorate climate-associated impacts of altered hydrological cycles in watersheds, protect coastal areas from increased storms, and provide habitat to reduce the probability of species' extinctions under a changing climate. Consequently, reforestation should be managed with both adaptation and mitigation objectives in mind, so as to maximize synergies among these diverse roles, and to avoid trade-offs in which the achievement of one goal is detrimental to another. Management of increased forest cover must also incorporate measures for reducing the direct and indirect impacts of changing climate on reforestation itself. Here we advocate a focus on "climate-smart reforestation," defined as reforesting for climate change mitigation and adaptation, while ensuring that the direct and indirect impacts of climate change on reforestation are anticipated and minimized.

© 2018, University of the Philippines Los Banos. All rights reserved. This study examined the involvement of women in agricultural decision-making among farming households in Ligao City, Albay, Philippines and related this to enhancement or decline of their adaptive capacity to extreme weather events. Data were collected through a household survey in the three selected barangays representing coastal, lowland and upland communities. More than 50% of husbands solely made decisions on choice of food crops, cash crops, tree species, and farm production. This parallel findings in the Philippines showing male dominance in agricultural production. Nevertheless, women still participated in decision-making in a limited way as 13-16% of them singly decided on behalf of the household while 30-38% made decisions together with the husband. Following the Sustainable Livelihood Framework, an adaptive capacity index was developed for the households. The analysis revealed that 96.17% of the respondents had low (0.5), with all scores ranging from 0.0982 to 0.6171. Age and choice of trees species by husband positively influence adaptive capacity, while choice of cash crops by husband has negative relationship. Farm decision-making is gendered, and giving authority to the person with more capabilities to make effective decisions based on his/her relationship to this resource-based livelihood should be considered despite prevalent notion of the dominance of one gender.