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Abstract
Automation creates winners and losers. By examining establishment-level panel data, we explore how labour unions affect labor adjustment associated with automation. Although automation can increase new hires of junior and unskilled production workers, the presence of labour unions neutralizes these effects. The results suggest that labour unions have incentives to protect incumbent workers negatively affected by automation.

Smart factories have been found to enhance the productivity of the overall production process, proving to be an appropriate policy as a key strategy for domestic manufacturing innovation. However, to maintain its effectiveness even when the scale and recipients of policy support are expanded, there should be improvements in the policy details and action plans. Above all, making factories smart requires not only the adoption of relevant technologies, but also proper management practices and organizational operations necessary to utilize the new technologies. The government should place the policy priority on helping firms to align workers' incentives with the technological change. It is also necessary to smartize the governance system of the overall manufacturing innovation strategy which include smart factories.