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Interest groups contribute much less to campaigns than legally allowed. Consequently, prevailing theories infer these contributions must yield minimal returns. I argue constraints on PAC fundraising may also explain why interest groups give little. I illuminate one such constraint: access-seeking PACs rely on voluntary donations from affiliated individuals (e.g., employees), and these PACs alienate donors with partisan preferences when giving to the opposite party. First, difference-in-differences analysis of real giving shows donors withhold donations to access-seeking PACs when PACs contribute to out-partisan politicians. Next, an original survey of corporate PAC donors demonstrates they know how their PACs allocate contributions across parties, and replicates the observational study in an experiment. Donors' partisanship thus limits access-seeking PACs' fundraising and influence. This provides a new perspective on why there is little interest group money in elections, and has broad implications for how partisan preferences and other internal constraints shape interest group strategy.

China has witnessed a growing number of social and environmental challenges, which remain obstacles for its rural vitalization. At the core of the discussion on sustainable agriculture and rural development lies the development of sustainable food systems. This article conducts a case study and examines a local food network which has created a reciprocity mechanism between smallholder producers and consumers. The discussion puts a particular emphasis on the interaction between sustainable consumption and production initiatives in the process of achieving the network's ecological goals. Based on the discussion and findings, the study concludes by proposing to draw on the concept of the moral economy and constructing "a moral economy of foods" to conceptualize social structure of local food systems. In a re- localization process of "local cultural repertoires of foods", while protocols of certification and traceability could constitute conclusive proofs of the moral economy of foods, a belief in sustainable food systems would stand the moral economy itself in good stead in a time when trust and confidence in the foods labeled "organic" are diminished. The findings presented in the study may have significant implications for designing policies for rural vitalization in China and promoting transitions to more sustainable agriculture and rural livelihoods.

Financial constraints may contribute to poverty traps. In the underdeveloped capital markets of rural China, many poor farmers in disadvantaged areas are financially constrained and denied access to formal financial services. A few attempts have been made to reform rural credit co-operatives but with limited impact. Recently, the development of rural mutual co-operatives, as one of new-type rural financial institutions, has gained increasing attention among scholars. While scholars predict that it would be difficult for true co-operative financial institutions to establish themselves and develop in China, this study discusses the conditions for the development of rural mutual co-operatives and identifies their institutional advantages in poverty outreach and financial sustainability. The analysis of the study is largely based on the primary data collected from field investigations and case studies. The study reveals that these organizations have played a significant role in promoting financial inclusion and become a sustainable driver for poverty reduction. This observation is in contrast to the widely-believed prediction that it is hardly probable for true credit co-operatives to establish themselves in modern China due to excessive government intervention and China's peculiar political culture and social context. The findings also suggest two conditions be necessary to achieve their potential, namely, the co-operation between credit co-operatives and agricultural co-operatives, and local embeddedness with good social connectedness.

Financial constraints may contribute to poverty traps. In the underdeveloped capital markets of rural China, many poor farmers in disadvantaged areas are financially constrained and denied access to formal financial services. A few attempts have been made to reform rural credit co-operatives but with limited impact. Recently, the development of rural mutual co-operatives, as one of new-type rural financial institutions, has gained increasing attention among scholars. While scholars predict that it would be difficult for true co-operative financial institutions to establish themselves and develop in China, this study discusses the conditions for the development of rural mutual co-operatives and identifies their institutional advantages in poverty outreach and financial sustainability. The analysis of the study is largely based on the primary data collected from field investigations and case studies. The study reveals that these organizations have played a significant role in promoting financial inclusion and become a sustainable driver for poverty reduction. This observation is in contrast to the widely-believed prediction that it is hardly probable for true credit co-operatives to establish themselves in modern China due to excessive government intervention and China's peculiar political culture and social context. The findings also suggest two conditions be necessary to achieve their potential, namely, the co-operation between credit co-operatives and agricultural co-operatives, and local embeddedness with good social connectedness.

AbstractThis study offers a conceptual analysis of the social economy in China within the context of institutional transition. In China, economic reform has engendered significant social changes. Accelerated economic growth, privatization of the social welfare system, and the rise of civil society explain the institutional contexts in which a range of not-for-profit initiatives, neither state-owned nor capital-driven, re-emerged. They are defined in this research as the social economy in China. This study shows that although the term itself is quite new, the social economy is no new phenomenon in China, as its various elements have a rich historical tradition. Moreover, the impact of the transition on the upsurge of the Chinese social economy is felt not only through direct means of de-nationalization and marketization and, as a consequence, the privatization of China's social welfare system, but also through various indirect means. The development of the social economy in China was greatly influenced by the framework set by political institutions and, accordingly, legal enabling environments. In addition, the link to the West, as well as local historical and cultural traditions, contribute towards explaining its re-emergence. Examining the practices in the field shows that the social economy sector in China is conducive to achieving a plural economy and an inclusive society, particularly by way of poverty reduction, social service provision, work integration, and community development. Therefore, in contemporary China, it serves as a key sector for improving welfare, encouraging participation, and consolidating solidarity.