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As peace operations and peacebuilding develop, recent discussions have centred on the growth of peacebuilding literature on inclusivity, bottom-up and local approaches. Given that a substantial number of peacebuilding is conducted by Non-governmental organisations, which occupy a middle level to governments and community levels, the paper unpacks the complexity of the interaction of the international and domestic middle-level organisations. The paper presents a case study of South Sudan's experience, which proves difficult to operationalize the critical inclusivity debates in their operations. The article argues that although there is more participation of local organizations in peacebuilding, the internal and external organizations are still riddled with complex intersections that still maintain the liberal (international) order of peace constituted by a specific form of external governance.

Both Burundi and South Sudan experience intractable conflicts which national and international actors struggle to resolve. Efforts to consolidate the nation‐state and foster social cohesion seem to be unsuccessful. As has been well documented in the literature, top‐down efforts to facilitate social cohesion by international and national actors are not enough to foster sustainable peace. Yet the dynamics and actors involved in bottom‐up interventions for social cohesion are less well understood than elite interventions. This article contributes to a deeper understanding of the bottom‐up interventions and explores the vertical integration between top‐down and bottom‐up efforts at social cohesion that exist along the local, national, and international trajectory in the two cases. Particularly in contexts such as South Sudan and Burundi, which are characterized by societies that are held together through complex social and relational networks, and in which informal governance and conflict resolution mechanisms hold high levels of legitimacy, this under‐researched aspect of social cohesion may hold critical insights in terms of consolidating nation‐states. The article provides an argument for the consideration of bottom‐up approaches for more integration of social cohesion mechanisms.

"This book analyses the main events and turning points in the building of pre- and post-independent South Sudan. It covers the historical perspectives of the country, its political, mediation and negotiation issues, peace and security, socio-economic development, and gender, as well as conflict and reconstruction. Many African states are products of compromised peace settlement and power sharing agreements, following violent and protracted conflicts between colonial/occupying powers, armed groups and nation states. This is the same route that Africa's youngest nation, South Sudan traversed before attaining independence in July 2011. This edited volume is an innovative collection that serves as a complete reading on South Sudan, from the pre-independent to post-independent realities of the political, military and inter-ethnic conflicts and the negotiations to resolve them. It is a step-by-step account of the major events that mark the history as well as the contemporary occurrences in South Sudan. Although the conflict in South Sudan is still ongoing as this book is published, the lessons extracted offer guidance on how to sustainably end armed conflict in Africa by focusing on the history of the conflict, political issues, peace and security, gender, justice and contemporary dynamics. The book presents a gendered approach to arguments, while also reflecting gender equity in terms of the book authorship. Students and scholars within political science, African politics, international relations and security studies will find this book useful. This book will also be of interest to policy makers and research institutions engaged in peacebuilding in Africa"--