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Aflatoxins are carcinogenic, toxic and immunosuppressive substances produced by some species of the fungal genus, Aspergillus. Consumption of aflatoxins can have serious health effects. Widespread in the tropical and sub-tropical world, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is found in many staple foods and feeds; after ingestion it is metabolized to aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), which transfers to milk. One option for reducing aflatoxin concentration in cow milk is addition of mycotoxin binders to animal feeds, but little is known about this practice in the smallholder dairy systems in developing countries. We undertook a study to investigate the availability and use of mycotoxin binders in selected urban and peri-urban areas of Kenya. Data were collected using key informant interviews with government officials and one-to-one questionnaire-guided interviews with agrovet outlets (shops that sell animal health products (such as antibiotics) and crop inputs (such as fertilizers) and feed processors. Nine different mycotoxin binder types were reported. They were sold by 8% (4/49) of agrovets and 33% (3/9) of feed processors. The binders were purchased by farmers formulating their own feeds and by feed processors. Our review of regulations found that incorporating binders into animal feeds is not mandatory and there are no specific standards governing their use in Kenya. Feed processors are expected to respect the maximum allowable limit of 5 μg/kg for AFB1 in complete feeds. Gaps in the local feed supplies that may potentially lead to increased risks of aflatoxin exposure through milk are discussed. This study provides key data on the availability and local use of mycotoxin binders, which were previously lacking. However, there is a need for continued research on their effectiveness in the local smallholder context, in order to promote their appropriate use.

Aflatoxins are toxic by-products of fungi contaminating maize and other crops; they can be carried over into milk, meat and eggs when livestock eat aflatoxin-contaminated feed or fodder. People who consume such animal products are exposed to the toxins. To assess the aflatoxin contamination status in marketed raw milk and associated risk factors in peri-urban Nairobi, we conducted a census of raw milk retailers in Dagoretti Division, Nairobi, Kenya. Structured questionnaires were filled in by face-to-face interviews with all retailers who agreed to participate in this study. Small portions of milk were purchased from each respondent and tested for aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) using competitive enzymelinked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) tests. Geographic coordinates of each eligible retailer were recorded. A total of 350 milk retailers were visited and 344 were plotted on a map. Of these, 250 retailers answered the questionnaire and a milk sample from each of 200 retailers underwent cELISA analysis for AFM1. Four types of businesses were found: kiosks (71%), dairy shops (21%), street or mobile vendors (3%) and grocery stands (1%); for 4% the business type was not identified. Milk was mainly sourced directly from dairy farms (59%) or from intermediate distributors (35%). Most retailers sold less than 20 litres per day of raw milk. The mean daily milk consumption of the milk retailers' households was 940 ml for adults and 729 ml for children. Although 58% of retailers had heard about aflatoxins and the majority of them agreed that aflatoxins could be present in milk, only 29% believed that "milk safety cannot be solely judged by sight or taste" and only 6% that "milk is not completely safe even after boiling". The cELISA test found the mean concentration of AFM1 was 128.7 parts per trillion (ppt) (median=49.9; 95% confidence interval=3.0–822.8) with a maximum of 1675 ppt. Overall, 55% of samples exceeded the European Union maximum level of 50 ppt and 6% exceeded the recommended maximum level of the United States Food and Drug Administration of 500 ppt. Compared to milk from street vendors, a significantly higher amount of AFM1 was detected in milk from kiosks and dairy shops, especially when the milk was sourced from farms without an intermediate distributor. Our findings indicate the need to better understand and manage aflatoxin in milk in Nairobi.

Introduction: Livestock value chains are an important source of employment, income and nutrition in developing countries. Increasing income has led to high demand for animal source products. Zoonoses pose a public health challenge to people producing, handling, processing and consuming animal products. Value chains create contact networks for transmission. Over 60 % of emerging diseases are of zoonotic origin. Outbreaks cause huge losses for countries and their populations. Biosecurity measures constitute a cheap, integrated approach and affordable way of disease control from farm to fork as advocated in the concept of one health. Methods: This research used mixed methods - qualitative and quantitative methods. A semistructured questionnaire was used to test knowledge attitude and practices of value chain actors. The sampling techniques used were snowballing and convenience sampling as no register of actors existed. Enumerators consulted actors on market days as it was the only time they were available. Snowball sampling was used to reach more actors after recommendation by fellow actors. The aim was to reach as many as possible of the population to eliminate bias associated with methods used. Participatory mapping exercises were utilised to map the value chain. The activities and biosecurity measures used were mapped to identify biosecurity gaps in actors' day to day occupational activities. This was to evaluate occupational risk, biosecurity measures adopted and possible food contamination due to non-implementation of measures. Key informant interviews were conducted with key actors like government institutions and actors to better understand key issues that arose during survey. Observations were made to compare responses and practices. Findings and interpretations: The study results indicate that there is low knowledge of disease, symptoms and biosecurity measures among value chain actors, who do not perceive zoonoses as a serious problem. This is reflected by low levels use of protective personal equipment, low levels of medical check-ups, risky occupational activities which expose actors and consumers to zoonotic risks. Cultural practises like consumption of raw offal, milk and occasional slaughtering of sick or dead animals pose a public health problem. Poor sanitation and hygiene like open defecation, use of untreated water, poor packaging and lack of training in food handling exposes food to contamination by actors. The area lacks a sewerage system and the waste management system is not sufficient to address zoonotic disease associated with animal waste. Governance challenges include small budget, bureaucracy, understaffing, poor planning and corruption exist leading to non-enforcement of laws and regulation. There is low institutional support for adoption of biosecurity measures and extension service is poorly equipped to deal with high demand in the region. Hospitals are not equipped to properly and incidences of misdiagnosis are common. Women have low education, low training, low knowledge and poor access to resources, highlighting gender issues and inequalities in value chains.

Bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics following low-level "background" exposure to antimicrobial agents as well as from exposure at therapeutic levels during treatment for bacterial infections. In this review, we look specifically at antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the equine reproductive tract and its possible origin, focusing particularly on antibiotics in semen extenders used in preparing semen doses for artificial insemination. Our review of the literature indicated that AMR in the equine uterus and vagina were reported worldwide in the last 20 years, in locations as diverse as Europe, India, and the United States. Bacteria colonizing the mucosa of the reproductive tract are transferred to semen during collection; further contamination of the semen may occur during processing, despite strict attention to hygiene at critical control points. These bacteria compete with spermatozoa for nutrients in the semen extender, producing metabolic byproducts and toxins that have a detrimental effect on sperm quality. Potential pathogens such as Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa may occasionally cause fertility issues in inseminated mares. Antibiotics are added during semen processing, according to legislation, to impede the growth of these microorganisms but may have a detrimental effect on sperm quality, depending on the antimicrobial agent and concentration used. However, this addition of antibiotics is counter to current recommendations on the prudent use of antibiotics, which recommend that antibiotics should be used only for therapeutic purposes and after establishing bacterial sensitivity. There is some evidence of resistance among bacteria found in semen samples. Potential alternatives to the addition of antibiotics are considered, especially physical removal separation of spermatozoa from bacteria. Suggestions for further research with colloid centrifugation are provided.

Introduction: Trypanosomiasis is a parasitic infection caused by the protozoa Trypanosoma. It is exclusively associated with Glossina species habitats and, therefore, restricted to specific geographical settings. It affects a wide range of hosts, including humans. Animals may carry different Trypanosoma spp. while being asymptomatic. They are, therefore, potentially important in unpremeditated disease transmission. Aim: The aim of this study was to study the potential impact of the government tsetse fly control program, and to elucidate the role of pigs in the Trypanosoma epidemiology in the West Nile region in Uganda. Methods: A historically important human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) hotspot was selected, with sampling in sites with and without a government tsetse fly control program. Pigs were screened for infection with Trypanosoma and tsetse traps were deployed to monitor vector occurrence, followed by tsetse fly dissection and microscopy to establish infection rates with Trypanosoma. Pig blood samples were further analyzed to identify possible Trypanosoma infections using internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-PCR. Results: Using microscopy, Trypanosoma was detected in 0.56% (7/1262) of the sampled pigs. Using ITS-PCR, 114 of 341 (33.4%) pig samples were shown to be Trypanosoma vivax positive. Of the 360 dissected tsetse flies, 13 (3.8%) were positive for Trypanosoma under the microscope. The difference in captured tsetse flies in the government intervention sites in comparison with the control sites was significant (p 0.05). Conclusion: This study illustrated the impact of a government control program with low vector abundance in a historical HAT hotspot in Uganda. The study could not verify that pigs in the area were carriers for the causative agent for HAT, but showed a high prevalence of the animal infectious agent T. vivax.

Background Livestock production, particularly the dairy sector, is important for food and nutritional wellbeing of communities in India, it supports livelihoods of many farmers, and contributes to the economy of the country. India is a high consumer of antibiotics and antimicrobial resistant (AMR) bacteria are a major public health concern. Objectives Our objectives were to identify animal health and drug use practices that may contribute to emergence and spread of AMR in the country, review previous AMR- mitigation strategies, and discuss "theory of change" as an approach to informing the choice of interventions. Methods We undertook a desk review of literature to identify practices with potential to contribute to emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance in India. Searches were done in PubMed, Google scholar, and Google. Data were synthesized and discussed by themes. Results Animal disease surveillance is less developed and infrastructure to support delivery of services is inadequate. Several groups are known to offer animal health services. The untrained "animal health workers" and para-veterinarians are more popular with farmers as they charge less for consultations (compared to veterinarians who are few and charge more). Over-the-counter access of antibiotics, without prescription, and direct marketing of drugs to farmers are common. Because of this, farmers are able to treat their animals and only consult when cases become non- responsive to treatment. Antibiotics are mostly used in management of mastitis cases. Drug withdrawal periods are rarely observed and occurrence of antibiotic- contaminated milk has been reported. Awareness on AMR is low and antimicrobial stewardship in livestock is yet to be developed. Initiatives such as the National programme for containment of AMR, National Action Plan on AMR, and the National Health policy point to government's commitment in addressing the problem of AMR in the country. Conclusion Several animal health and drug use practices, with potential to cause AMR, have been described, and their contribution can be discussed further by engaging stakeholders in a "theory of change" exercise. Interventions that address AMR from the animal health perspective should be promoted, and incentives to increase their adoption explored.

Poultry are important for many poor households in developing countries, but there are many constraints to poultry production, including disease. One of the most important diseases of chickens is Newcastle disease (ND). Even though there are effective vaccines against this disease available in most countries, uptake by small-scale poultry keepers is often low. In this study, two areas in Kenya and Tanzania were studied, where some villages had received additional support to get vaccination and other villages had not. In Kenya, 320 households from 10 villages were interviewed, of which half of the villages had active promotion of vaccination through village-based advisors. In Tanzania, 457 households were interviewed, of which 241 came from villages that have had active support through either a project or government extension services. Knowledge about vaccines and the attitudes towards vaccinating against ND was evaluated using mixed multivariable logistic models. Results indicate that in Kenya, the most important determinants for understanding the function of a vaccine were having had support in the village and to have knowledge about ND signs, while in Tanzania gender and previous vaccine use were important in addition to having had support. Attitudes towards vaccination were mainly determined by knowledge, where more knowledge about how vaccines work in general or about ND contributed to more positive attitudes. Among Kenyan farmers that had never used the vaccine before, the amount of birds they lost to disease and predators also influenced attitudes. In conclusion, this study supports the notion that knowledge is a very important component of extension support and that simply making vaccines available may not be sufficient for high levels of uptake.

Introduction Mycotoxin producing fungi contaminate feeds pre- or post harvest and produce aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2. Aflatoxin B1 is a class 1 human carcinogen and is converted to aflatoxin M1 by cows and secreted in milk. Aflatoxin M1 is a class 2B (possible) carcinogen and is associated with stunting in children. Aflatoxin B1 in feeds causes a decrease in milk production, reduced feed conversion efficiency and reduced fertility. A cross-sectional study to assess the economic costs of aflatoxins was done in five counties in Kenya. Methods A map of the five agro-ecological zones of Kenya was used to select the study sites: Kisii and Bungoma (temperate), Tharaka-Nithi (humid), Kwale (sub-humid), and Isiolo(semi-arid). One sublocation was randomly selected from each county. Multistage cluster sampling was done with sub-locations, then villages, then dairy farmers (Dohoo et al., 2012). Milk samples were collected from the dairy farmers. Feed samples were collected from the dairy farmers, feed traders and feed manufacturers. Aflatoxin B1 and M1 quantification in dairy feeds and milk was done using a competitive ELISA. Possible economic costs of aflatoxins were estimated using annual quantities/market prices of feeds and milk having aflatoxin B1 or M1 respectively above the WHO/FAO standards. Findings and interpretations Sixty two of 101 (61.4%) dairy feed samples from feed manufacturers had aflatoxin B1 levels above the FAO/WHO/Kenya limit of 5 ppb. If this Kenyan legislation would be enforced, the possible economic cost per year for dairy feed manufacturers would be 22.2 billion US$. Seventeen of 118 (14.4%) dairy feed samples from farmers had aflatoxin B1 levels above 120 ppb. Aflatoxin B1 concentrations above 120 ppb in dairy feeds has been shown to cause a 25 % drop in milk production(Guthrie and Bedell, 1979). The annual cost for farmers in Kenya feeding their cows on dairy feeds with aflatoxin B1 above 120 ppb is estimated at 37.4 million US$. Of the 283 milk samples from the five counties, 10.3% had aflatoxin B1 levels above WHO/FAO limit of 50 ppt which would cost dairy farmers 113.4 million US $ per year, if legislation was enforced. Education of farmers, feed manufacturers and traders on good agricultural and feed storage practices could reduce the level of contamination and multiplication of aflatoxin producing fungi and increase profits for the dairy farmers. ; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Finland

Aflatoxin contamination in food is a human health threat in many developing countries. This study examines Kenyan milk consumers' behaviour related to, and perception of, aflatoxin contamination. The study considered two groups of respondents: raw milk consumers mainly located in peri-urban areas of Nairobi, and processed milk consumers located in urban areas. Results indicate that practically all raw milk consumers and the majority of processed milk consumers boil the milk before its consumption believing that the product is completely safe after boiling. Aflatoxin awareness is very high for the urban milk consumers and relatively high for the peri-urban ones. In both groups, almost half of the respondents who had heard about aflatoxin believe, or know, that it can be transferred into milk. Most respondents, however, did not know how to avoid aflatoxin-contaminated milk. Given the credence characteristic of aflatoxin consumer education and awareness raising programs alone will not be able to solve the problem. Efforts along the whole value chain and at the level of government are needed to reduce the use of aflatoxin spoiled feed and secure aflatoxin safe milk at the consumer level.

Poultry are important for many poor households in developing countries, but there are many constraints to poultry production, including disease. One of the most important diseases of chickens is Newcastle disease (ND). Even though there are effective vaccines against this disease available in most countries, uptake by small-scale poultry keepers is often low. In this study, two areas in Kenya and Tanzania were studied, where some villages had received additional support to get vaccination and other villages had not. In Kenya, 320 households from 10 villages were interviewed, of which half of the villages had active promotion of vaccination through village-based advisors. In Tanzania, 457 households were interviewed, of which 241 came from villages that have had active support through either a project or government extension services. Knowledge about vaccines and the attitudes towards vaccinating against ND was evaluated using mixed multivariable logistic models. Results indicate that in Kenya, the most important determinants for understanding the function of a vaccine were having had support in the village and to have knowledge about ND signs, while in Tanzania gender and previous vaccine use were important in addition to having had support. Attitudes towards vaccination were mainly determined by knowledge, where more knowledge about how vaccines work in general or about ND contributed to more positive attitudes. Among Kenyan farmers that had never used the vaccine before, the amount of birds they lost to disease and predators also influenced attitudes. In conclusion, this study supports the notion that knowledge is a very important component of extension support and that simply making vaccines available may not be sufficient for high levels of uptake. ; CRP4; DCA; IFPRI3; ISI ; A4NH ; PR ; 8 pages ; CGIAR Research Programs on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH)

Global food safety systems are rapidly changing in response to urbanization and population growth, climate change, trade expansion and social and economic changes; Africa is no exception. The continent is the second in the world after Asia in terms of area and population. The rapidly evolving food systems in Africa pose important food safety challenges. Food processing approaches, traditionally practiced by African societies can be used to effectively to reduce food safety risks (e.g., fermentation when done at small-scale). However, mass production and long-distance transport of foods, which are now common practice, bring new food safety challenges. Food safety along the production to consumption continuum is characterized in the majority of the cases by the involvement of informal actors with sub-optimal food handling practices, creating major impacts on public health and the economy. Generally, the current complexity of food systems makes solutions not always straight forward. Globally, unsafe food causes an estimated 600 million illnesses, and 420,000 deaths and Africa disproportionately bears the highest burden of foodborne diseases. With few exceptions, the issue of food safety has not been given comparable emphasis on the continent and, when it has, the focus is largely on food commodities destined for international market. This presentation covers the major foodborne hazards (microbiological and chemical) in the African context and describes local and continental examples of food safety initiatives aimed at reducing the burden of foodborne disease and improving public health. Specifically, the application of risk-based and One Health approaches to reduce foodborne diseases will be emphasised. Examples of action research and political decision making around food safety at the continental level will be provided. Coordinated and tailored efforts that take into account the complex nature of global and African food safety systems are clearly needed.

The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 μg/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens' health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 mu g/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens' health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 μg/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens' health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.