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AbstractLife on Earth is complex and generally abounds in food webs with other living organisms in terms of an ecological community. Besides such complexity, and the fact that populations of most living organisms have never been studied in terms of their molecular ecology, it is best to tread carefully when describing a given species as a 'generalist', more especially in terms of dietary and habitat breadth. We very much doubt that population homogeneity ever exists—because populations are always undergoing molecular-genetic changes, sometimes rapid, in response to various ecological challenges (e.g. climate, intra- and interspecific competition). In any case, a population may already have begun to undergo cryptic speciation. Such entities can occupy different habitats or exhibit different dietary breadths as a result of various ecological interactions formed over different spatial scales. These scales include everything from local (including islands) to geographic. The fossil evidence reveals that specialisations have existed over vast swathes of time. Besides, as is well documented, evolution only occurs as a result of adaptations leading to specialisation, and ultimately, specialist entitles, i.e. species and lower levels of ecological-evolutionary divergence. Here, focusing on diet, we posit that the terms mono-, oligo-and polyphagous are more accurate in relation to the dietary breadth of animals, with omnivory adopted in the case of organisms with very different food items. Thus, we strongly urge that the dubious and unscientific term 'generalism' be dropped in favour of these more precise and scientifically accurate terms directly relating to levels of phagy.

Here we present a knowledge-data framework based on the politico-military statement by Donald Rumsfeld (below) which has, we believe, direct relevance to ecological conservation. Ecological examples of four of the identified categories are provided with discussion of the conservation risks to a species through knowledge or data loss and movement through the categories. We show that so-called known knowns in terms of global biodiversity are not as accurately known as thought, despite 500 years or more of world-wide collecting and recording of eukaryotic species. In addition, as fast as new species, living or fossil, are discovered (unknown unknowns), some of which have revolutionised concepts about the biology of particular taxa, meanwhile, sadly other living species are being extirpated, or are assumed to be so (unknown knowns). These often have a high probability of ultimately being rediscovered, especially if small and/or living in remote, under-sampled regions. Furthermore, we suggest that in some cases it may be possible to predict the existence of known species in new habitats, or the existence of unknown co-evolved animal species (known unknowns). We discuss how technological advances (e.g. molecular markers and DNA sequencing) are inflating current estimates of biodiversity by identifying the existence of cryptic species. We believe the knowledge-data matrix provides another tool for conservation practitioners to focus data collection on bridging knowledge gaps for more effective conservation outcomes. © 2016 The Linnean Society of London.

The five-year value in the compound annual growth rate of the biopesticides sector is predicted to be 16% by 2017 and to produce a global market worth $US 10 billion. Despite this, several impediments occur within the EU that negatively affect biopesticide research and innovation. At present, there are fewer biopesticide-active substances registered in the EU compared with the United States, India, Brazil and China. The relatively low level of biopesticide research in the EU (6880 ISI papers) versus the United States (18839), India (9501) and China (7875) relates to the greater complexity of EU-based biopesticide regulations compared with these other countries. In this light, it is worth noting that tensions may exist between regulators that emphasise the beneficial nature of biopesticides in environmentally friendly crop management and those that adopt a more technologically based approach dependent on a chemical-pesticide-driven model. Compared with the other aforementioned countries, far fewer biopesticide products are available in the EU market, mainly as a direct result of the severe regulatory factors present there. The extent to which this trend will continue depends largely on a range of interacting political and/or regulatory decisions that influence environmentally friendly agricultural industries. (c) 2017 Society of Chemical Industry