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THE AUTHOR EXAMINES THE POST-AGRARIAN PERIOD AND AND THE CONTINUING TRANFORMATION OF RURAL CLASS RELATIONS IN THE PERUVIAN ANDES. HE ARGUES THAT IN THE 1970S 3 TRENDS ARE APPARENT: TENDENCY TOWARD CONTINUATION AND EXTENSION OF SMALLHOLDIN PRODUCTION; SEMIPROLETARIANIZATION; AND THE CONSOLIDATION AND GROWTH OF RURAL PETTY AND MIDDLE BOURGEOISIES. HE FINDS PERU INCREASINGLY CAPITALIST.

Translated by Stephen M. Gorman.

El artículo describe algunas de las transformaciones económicas y sociales que precedieron a la transición hacia la democracia en España y condicionaron su resultado. Esta referencia sirve de advertencia acerca de la aplicabilidad generalizada del modelo español sin la debida comprensión, tanto de su complejidad, como de sus limitaciones. Así mismo, se señalan las circunstancias externas excepcionalmente favorables que facilitaron, primero, la convergencia económica, y luego la política de España con el resto del mundo occidental. No obstante estas advertencias, la modernización económica y política de España contiene un mensaje de optimismo para sociedades de similar tradición cultural.

Conferencia pronunciada en la Corporación de Investigaciones Económicas para Latinoamérica, CIEPLAN, en Santiago de Chile.El año pasado llegó a la mayoría de edad un experimento político-económico-social en Colombia que ha coincidido con una etapa de cambios profundos en la vida del país. Los aspectos políticos, jurídicos e institucionales de ese experimento han sido descritos y analizados ampliamente. El centro para las relaciones interamericanas de Nueva York acaba de publicar una recopilación bastante completa sobre las implicaciones del gobierno de coalición en las dos décadas anteriores. (Politics of compromise, coalition government in Colombia, editado por Albert Berry, Ronald Hellman y Mauricio Sola un, Transaction Books New Brunswick, New Jersey).A continuación se hace un intento por describir algunos aspectos de la evolución económica y social en ese periodo y de relacionarlos con el marco general establecido por el acuerdo político subyacente.

Extradition is the most important judicial figure in international cooperation; the most notable cases being terrorism, drug trafficking, money laundering, weapons, trafficking in persons, criminal organizations and other punishable conducts related to the above, as well as the crimes contained in the Rome Statute. This cooperation figure in some estates has overcome a series of political, economic, legal and social barriers, becoming a more viable and more valid institution, since it has gone from being a government policy to being a state policy, in addition to extending its scope of applicability, going from the simple referral of criminals to reciprocity of information, investigation, judicial assistance, among others. Thus, countries today have the international obligation to make and ratify treaties where mutual assistance commitments are generated in the field of international cooperation, based on the principle or Latin formula called: aut dedere aut judicare (extradite or judge), issued since the Geneva Conventions of 1949, so that if the state is unable to prosecute the offender or wishes to surrender it to the requesting nation, the offender may be prosecuted by the petitioner.It is to be clarified that this regulation was set aside for decades and has its legal reappearance in articles 8 and 9 of the draft code of crimes against the peace and security of mankind of 1996, where this principle and that of the universal jurisdiction were timidly addressed. This was taken up again in 1998 when the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted. ; La extradición es la figura jurídica judicial de mayor expresión en materia de cooperación internacional; siendo los casos más notorios los de terrorismo, narcotráfico, blanqueo de capitales, armas, trata de personas, organizaciones criminales y demás conductas punibles conexas a los anteriores, así como los delitos contenidos en el Estatuto de Roma. Esta figura cooperativa en algunos estamentos ha superado una serie de barreras de conveniencia política, económicas, jurídicas y sociales, convirtiéndose en una institución más viable y de mayor validez, pues ha pasado de ser una política de gobierno a ser una política estatal, además de ampliar su espectro de aplicabilidad, pasándose de la simple remisión de criminales a la reciprocidad de información, investigación, asistencia judicial, entre otros. Es así que los países se encuentran hoy con la obligación internacional de efectuar y ratificar tratados en donde se generen compromisos de asistencia mutua en materia de cooperación internacional, basados en el principio o denominada formula del latín: aut dedere aut judicare (extraditar o juzgar), emanado desde los convenios de Ginebra de 1949, con el propósito de que si el estamento está imposibilitado de juzgar al criminal o desea entregarlo a la nación requirente, este pueda ser procesado por el solicitante.Es de aclarar que esta norma se hizo a un lado durante décadas, tiene su reaparición legal en los artículos 8 y 9 del proyecto de código de crímenes contra la paz y la seguridad de la humanidad de 1996, en donde se trataba tímidamente este principio y el de jurisdicción universal. Lo anterior se retoma en 1998 al adoptarse el Estatuto de Roma de la Corte Penal Internacional. ; A extradição é a figura jurídica judicial de maior expressão em matéria de cooperação internacional; sendo os casos mais notórios os de terrorismo, narcotráfico, branqueamento de capitais, armas, tráfico de pessoas, organizações criminosas e demais condutas puníveis conexas às anteriores, assim como os delitos estabelecidos no Estatuto de Roma.Esta figura cooperativa em alguns estamentos tem superado uma série de barreiras de conveniência política, econômicas, jurídicas e sociais, convertendose em uma instituição mais viável e de maior validez, ora tem passado de ser uma política de governo ao ser uma política estatal, além de ampliar seu espectro de aplicabilidade, passando da simples remissão de criminosos à reciprocidade de informação, investigação, assistência judicial, entre outros.É assim que os países encontram-se hoje com a obrigação internacional de efetuare ratificar os tratados nos quais se gerem compromissos de assistência mútua emmatéria de cooperação internacional, baseados no princípio ou denominada formula do latim: aut dedere aut judicare (extraditar ou julgar) emanado nos convênios de Genebra de 1949, com o objetivo que se o estamento está impossibilitado para julgar ao criminoso ou deseja entregá-lo à nação requerente, o criminoso seja processado pelo solicitante.Deve-se esclarecer que esta forma foi ignorada durante décadas, tem sua reaparição legal nos artigos 8 e 9 do projeto do código de crimes contra a paz e a segurança da humanidade de 1996, na qual se tratava timidamente este princípio e o do jurisdição universal. O anterior se retoma em 1998 ao se adotar o Estatuto de Roma da Corte Penal Internacional.

The aim of this study was to develop new chrome-free surface pretreatments for AA2024-T3 aluminum alloy. These pretreatments were based on hybrid organic-inorganic sol-gel thin films prepared from mixtures of The aim of this study was to develop new chrome-free surface pretreatments for AA2024-T3 aluminum alloy. These pretreatments were based on hybrid organic–inorganic sol–gel thin films prepared from mixtures of γ -methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MAPTMS) and tetramethylorthosilicate (TMOS). Di erent MAPTMS/TMOS molar ratios were used for optimizing the physical–chemical characteristics of the sol–gel films. The formulation of a set of these sols was modified by incorporating piperazine (1,4-diazacyclohexane) as a corrosion inhibitor. The resulting sol–gel films were characterized by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), liquid-state 29Si nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (29Si-NMR) and viscosity measurements. The corrosion performance of the sol–gel films was analyzed by using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and local electrochemical impedance mapping (LEIM). The characterization techniques indicated that piperazine behaved as a catalyst for the condensation reaction during the formation of the MAPTMS/TMOS organopolysiloxane network and produces an increase of the crosslinking degree of the sol–gel films. EIS and LEIM results showed that piperazine is an e ective corrosion inhibitor, which can be used to enhance the active corrosion protection performance of sol–gel films.-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MAPTMS) and tetramethylorthosilicate (TMOS). Di erent MAPTMS/TMOS molar ratios were used for optimizing the physical-chemical characteristics of the sol-gel films. The formulation of a set of these sols was modified by incorporating piperazine (1,4- diazacyclohexane) as a corrosion inhibitor. The resulting sol-gel films were characterized by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), liquid-state 29Si nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (29Si-NMR) and viscosity measurements. The corrosion performance of the sol-gel films was analyzed by using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and local electrochemical impedance mapping (LEIM). The characterization techniques indicated that piperazine behaved as a catalyst for the condensation reaction during the formation of the MAPTMS/TMOS organopolysiloxane network and produces an increase of the crosslinking degree of the sol-gel films. EIS and LEIM results showed that piperazine is an e ective corrosion inhibitor, which can be used to enhance the active corrosion protection performance of sol-gel films. ; This research was funded by the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness of Spain (MAT2015-65445-C2-1-R and MAT2015-70780-C4-2-P Projects), and the Regional Government of Madrid (Project P2018/NMT-4411 ADITIMAT-CM).