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Partitioning genetic variation into panmictic units is one of the most commonly used techniques in genetic studies of wild organisms. For conservation, the rationale is to identify units for management, most often referred to as populations. Describing these populations provides a measure of genetic differentiation, but they are only management units in relation to specific objectives. In situ conservation activities are mostly constrained to landscape (or 'seascape') units. With continuing habitat fragmentation, maintaining gene flow and genetic variation is an underlying objective for many conservation activities. Spatially explicit genetic approaches can describe how gene flow varies across a landscape, but the popular approach of identifying populations has limited and specific application. The statistical tests and sampling procedures used seldom allow for the spatial extent of genetic panmixia to be precisely defined. Gene flow, genetic variation and genetic detection of individual movements can be estimated without reference to populations. Furthermore, the term 'population' is used inconsistently in the literature and is often poorly defined. Formulating appropriate questions for management requires that the unit of study is clearly described, and often this could be organisms inhabiting defined areas of the landscape. Resources for conservation management are limited, so geneticists working on gene flow in wild organisms need to frame questions relevant to specific management needs and carefully consider the language and approaches employed.

Brazilian Amazonia covers around 5 million km2. If we could sample it regularly, with one sample for each 1 degree cell (10,000 km2), we would need 500 sample sites. It is clear that financial costs limit the amplitude of biodiversity studies. As the area to be explored is so large, financial resources limited, and demands varied, a program on Amazonian biodiversity research must be cost-effective. Integrated and large-scale studies, using standardized protocols represent the only way to achieve these goals. In this review, we report on experience gathered at two model sites in Amazonia, Reserva Ducke and Alter do Chão, which were used to design the RAPELD system, which is the principle basis for the Inventory Component of the Program on Biodiversity Research (PPBio) of the Brazilian government (http://ppbio.inpa.gov.br). We address the following issues: 1) how scale, size, shape and distribution of sampling units affect the outcome of biodiversity studies, in terms of the estimation of biotic complementarity between sites, estimation of organismal abundance, and modeling of species distributions; 2) how different sampling needs, from different taxonomic groups, can be adjusted in integrated protocols; 3) how costs can be reduced through sub-sampling. Use of the method in other research sites in Amazonia is being conducted successfully, and a large network of standardized plots is being constructed (see http://ppbio.inpa.gov.br). We also show that other methodologies currently used in large-scale biodiversity studies can be integrated into the RAPELD design. © 2010 ABECO.

It has been argued that measuring governance at scales smaller than global could be an important management tool. However, current studies are conducted on a global scale and use expensive methods. In the present study, we assess whether the reported governance of Amazonian municipalities is related to reductions in deforestation. Economic activity (EA) affected general governance (G) positively (G = 0.81 +1.19 ∗ EA, F1, 98 = 77.36, p < 0.001). Environmental governance (EG) was not affected significantly (p = 0.43) by deforestation before 2000 (PD), but increased significantly (p < 0.001) with general governance (G) (EG = -0.29 + 0.04 PD+0.98∗OG, F2,97 = 42.6, p <0.001). Deforestation was not significantly related to environmental governance (p = 0.82). The only indirect effect of significant magnitude was the effect of the density of forest reserves on recent deforestation through deforestation before 2000, which was strongly negative (-0.49). It is possible to assess reported actions to promote municipal governance through official data. However, it is not enough to assume that general governance or environmental governance at the municipal level, as reflected in the official statistics, benefits environmental conservation. In fact, even at the level of nation states, at which most quantification of governance has been undertaken, it seems that the relationship between governance and environmental preservation is only an assumption, because we are aware of no study that supports that hypothesis quantitatively. © 2015 Dias et al.

Studies leading to decision-making for environmental licensing often fail to provide accurate estimates of diversity. Measures of snake diversity are regularly obtained to assess development impacts in the rainforests of the Amazon Basin, but this taxonomic group may be subject to poor detection probabilities. Recently, the Brazilian government tried to standardize sampling designs by the implementation of a system (RAPELD) to quantify biological diversity using spatiallystandardized sampling units. Consistency in sampling design allows the detection probabilities to be compared among taxa, and sampling effort and associated cost to be evaluated. The cost effectiveness of detecting snakes has received no attention in Amazonia. Here we tested the effects of reducing sampling effort on estimates of species densities and assemblage composition. We identified snakes in seven plot systems, each standardised with 14 plots. The 250 m long centre line of each plot followed an altitudinal contour. Surveys were repeated four times in each plot and detection probabilities were estimated for the 41 species encountered. Reducing the number of observations, or the size of the sampling modules, caused significant loss of information on species densities and local patterns of variation in assemblage composition. We estimated the cost to find a snake as $ 120 U.S., but general linear models indicated the possibility of identifying differences in assemblage composition for half the overall survey costs. Decisions to reduce sampling effort depend on the importance of lost information to target-issues, and may not be the preferred option if there is the potential for identifying individual snake species requiring specific conservation actions. However, in most studies of human disturbance on species assemblages, it is likely to be more cost-effective to focus on other groups of organisms with higher detection probabilities. © 2014 Fraga et al.

COVID-19 and its control constitute an example of a complex system, and most humans are poorly prepared to deal with complex systems. Here we show that government, some scientists and part of the news media did not recognize or ignored data that were freely available about the course of the epidemic in Brazil, and that this led to false conclusions and fatal decisions. The second wave of mortality did not originate in Manaus; Christmas and New Year celebrations that occurred long after the second wave started were not its primary cause; and social distancing accelerated rather than retarded the onset of the second wave. Had these facts been appreciated earlier, it would have been obvious that the only viable strategies were to reinforce the health system and obtain vaccines at any cost, and this might have saved between a quarter and half a million lives. ; COVID-19 y su control constituyen un ejemplo de un sistema complejo, y la mayoría de los humanos están mal preparados para lidiar con sistemas complejos. Aquí mostramos que el gobierno, algunos científicos y parte de los medios de comunicación no reconocieron o ignoraron datos de libre acceso sobre el curso de la epidemia en Brasil, y eso llevó a conclusiones falsas y decisiones fatales. La segunda ola de mortalidad no se originó en Manaus; Las celebraciones de Navidad y Año Nuevo que ocurrieron mucho después de que comenzara la segunda ola no fueron su causa principal; y el distanciamiento social aceleró en lugar de retrasar el inicio de la segunda ola. Si estos hechos se hubieran apreciado antes, habría sido obvio que las únicas estrategias viables eran reforzar el sistema de salud y obtener vacunas a toda costa, y esto podría haber salvado entre un cuarto y medio millón de vidas. ; A COVID-19 e seu controle constituem um exemplo de sistema complexo, e a maioria dos humanos está mal preparada para lidar com sistemas desse tipo. Nesse estudo mostramos que o governo, alguns cientistas e parte da mídia não reconheceram ou ignoraram os dados disponíveis gratuitamente sobre a direção da epidemia no Brasil, e que isso levou a conclusões falsas e decisões fatais. A segunda onda de mortalidade não se originou em Manaus; as celebrações de Natal e Ano Novo que ocorreram muito depois do início da segunda onda não foram sua causa principal; e o distanciamento social acelerou em vez de retardar o início da segunda onda. Se esses fatos tivessem sido apreciados anteriormente, seria óbvio que as únicas estratégias viáveis eram reforçar o sistema de saúde e obter vacinas a qualquer custo, e isso poderia ter salvado entre um quarto e meio milhão de vidas.

We monitored the number of caiman (Caiman crocodilus yacare) nests in two ranches in the Brazilian Pantanal that cover an area of about 50.000 ha for 28 years (1987-2014). The number of nests was related to combinations of rainfall, water level, and number of days with temperature below 20°C, depending on the area. Most of the variation in number of nests could not be predicted by the environmental variables, but could be represented mathematically by a sine wave. We were not able to identify any external driver and suspect that the regular fluctuations may have resulted from an intrinsic population process. Presently, ranches are used as management units under the legislation for ranching Pantanal caimans. However, although some breeding females were recaptured in the area after periods of up to 21 years, most were not recaptured near nests or in general surveys of the area, suggesting that females are not strongly philopatric and that ranches do not represent isolated demographic units. Copyright: © 2015 Campos et al.

This paper summarises discussions in a workshop entitled "exploring uncertainties in biodiversity science, policy and management". It draws together experiences gained by scientists and scholars when encountering and coping with different types of uncertainty in their work in the field of biodiversity protection. The discussion covers all main phases of scientific work: field work and data analysis; methodologies; setting goals for research projects, taking simultaneously into account the agency of scientists conducting the work; developing communication with policy-makers and society at large; and giving arguments for the societal relevance of the issues. The paper concludes with a plea for collaborative learning that would build upon close cooperation among specialists who have developed expertise in different fields in research, management and politics.

This paper summarises discussions in a workshop entitled "exploring uncertainties in biodiversity science, policy and management". It draws together experiences gained by scientists and scholars when encountering and coping with different types of uncertainty in their work in the field of biodiversity protection. The discussion covers all main phases of scientific work: field work and data analysis; methodologies; setting goals for research projects, taking simultaneously into account the agency of scientists conducting the work; developing communication with policy-makers and society at large; and giving arguments for the societal relevance of the issues. The paper concludes with a plea for collaborative learning that would build upon close cooperation among specialists who have developed expertise in different fields in research, management and politics. Copyright Yrjö Haila et al.

The effects of Brazil's political crisis on science funding necessary for biodiversity conservation are likely to be global. Brazil is not only the world's most biodiverse nation, it is responsible for the greater part of the Amazon forest, which regulates the climate and provides rain to much of southern South America. Brazil was a world leader in satellite monitoring of land-use change, in-situ biodiversity monitoring, reduction in tropical-forest deforestation, protection of indigenous lands, and a model for other developing nations. Coordinated public responses will be necessary to prevent special-interest groups from using the political crisis to weaken science funding, environmental legislation and law enforcement. © 2018 Magnusson, Grelle, Marques, Rocha, Dias, Fontana, Bergallo, Overbeck, Vale, Tomas, Cerqueira, Collevatti, Pillar, Malabarba, Lins-e-Silva, Neckel-Oliveira, Martinelli, Akama, Rodrigues, Silveira, Scariot and Fernandes.

The effects of Brazil's political crisis on science funding necessary for biodiversity conservation are likely to be global. Brazil is not only the world's most biodiverse nation, it is responsible for the greater part of the Amazon forest, which regulates the climate and provides rain to much of southern South America. Brazil was a world leader in satellite monitoring of land-use change, in-situ biodiversity monitoring, reduction in tropical-forest deforestation, protection of indigenous lands, and a model for other developing nations. Coordinated public responses will be necessary to prevent special-interest groups from using the political crisis to weaken science funding, environmental legislation and law enforcement. Keywords: Brazil, biodiversity, climate change, governance, funding

This Editorial presents the focus, scope and policies of the inaugural issue of Nature Conservation, a new open access, peer-reviewed journal bridging natural sciences, social sciences and hands-on applications in conservation management. The journal covers all aspects of nature conservation and aims particularly at facilitating better interaction between scientists and practitioners. The journal will impose no restrictions on manuscript size or the use of colour. We will use an XML-based editorial workflow and several cutting-edge innovations in publishing and information dissemination. These include semantic mark-up of, and enhancements to published text, data, and extensive cross-linking within the journal and to external sources. We believe the journal will make an important contribution to better linking science and practice, offers rapid, peer-reviewed and flexible publication for authors and unrestricted access to content. ; The journal Nature Conservation was established within the framework of the European Union's Framework Program 7 large-integrated project SCALES: Securing the Conservation of biodiversity across Administrative Levels and spatial, temporal, and Ecological Scales, www.scales-project.net (grant 226852; Henle et al. 2010).

Aim: The accurate mapping of forest carbon stocks is essential for understanding the global carbon cycle, for assessing emissions from deforestation, and for rational land-use planning. Remote sensing (RS) is currently the key tool for this purpose, but RS does not estimate vegetation biomass directly, and thus may miss significant spatial variations in forest structure. We test the stated accuracy of pantropical carbon maps using a large independent field dataset. Location: Tropical forests of the Amazon basin. The permanent archive of the field plot data can be accessed at: http://dx.doi.org/10.5521/FORESTPLOTS.NET/2014_1 Methods: Two recent pantropical RS maps of vegetation carbon are compared to a unique ground-plot dataset, involving tree measurements in 413 large inventory plots located in nine countries. The RS maps were compared directly to field plots, and kriging of the field data was used to allow area-based comparisons. Results: The two RS carbon maps fail to capture the main gradient in Amazon forest carbon detected using 413 ground plots, from the densely wooded tall forests of the north-east, to the light-wooded, shorter forests of the south-west. The differences between plots and RS maps far exceed the uncertainties given in these studies, with whole regions over- or under-estimated by > 25%, whereas regional uncertainties for the maps were reported to be < 5%. Main conclusions: Pantropical biomass maps are widely used by governments and by projects aiming to reduce deforestation using carbon offsets, but may have significant regional biases. Carbon-mapping techniques must be revised to account for the known ecological variation in tree wood density and allometry to create maps suitable for carbon accounting. The use of single relationships between tree canopy height and above-ground biomass inevitably yields large, spatially correlated errors. This presents a significant challenge to both the forest conservation and remote sensing communities, because neither wood density nor species ...

This paper is the result of the work of hundreds of different scientists and research institutions in the Amazon over the past 80 years. Without their hard work this analysis would have been impossible. We thank Charles Zartman for the use of plots from Jutai. HtS, VFG, and RS were supported by grant 407232/2013-3 - PVE - MEC/MCTI/CAPES/CNPq/FAPs; PIP had support for this work from CNPq (productivity grant 310885/2017-5) and FAPESP (research grant #09/53413-5); RAFL was supported by the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 795114; CB was supported by grant FAPESP 95/3058-0 - CRS 068/96 WWF Brasil - The Body Shop; DS, JFM, JE, PP and JC benefited from an "Investissement d'Avenir" grant managed by the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (CEBA: ANR-10-LABX-25-01); HLQ/MAP/JLLM received financial supported by MCT/CNPq/CT-INFRA/GEOMA #550373/2010-1 and # 457515/2012-0, and JLLM were supported by grant CAPES/PDSE # 88881.135761/2016-01 and CAPES/Fapespa #1530801; The Brazilian National Research Council (CNPq) provided a productivity grant to EMV (Grant 308040/2017-1); Floristic identification in plots in the RAINFOR forest monitoring network have been supported by the Natural Environment Research Council (grants NE/B503384/1, NE/ D01025X/1, NE/ I02982X/1, NE/F005806/1, NE/D005590/1 and NE/I028122/1) and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation; BMF is funded by FAPESP grant 2016/25086-3. BSM, BHMJ and OLP were supported by grants CNPq/CAPES/ FAPS/BC-Newton Fund #441244/2016-5 and FAPEMAT/0589267/2016; TWH was funded by National Science Foundation grant DEB-1556338.The 25-ha Long-Term Ecological Research Project of Amacayacu is a collaborative project of the Instituto Amazónico de Investigaciones Científicas Sinchi and the Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Medellín, in partnership with the Unidad de Manejo Especial de Parques Naturales Nacionales and the Center for Tropical Forest Science of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (CTFS). The Amacayacu Forest Dynamics Plot is part of the Center for Tropical Forest Science, a global network of large-scale demographic tree plots. We acknowledge the Director and staff of the Amacayacu National Park for supporting and maintaining the project in this National Park. ; Amazonian forests are extraordinarily diverse, but the estimated species richness is very much debated. Here, we apply an ensemble of parametric estimators and a novel technique that includes conspecific spatial aggregation to an extended database of forest plots with up-to-date taxonomy. We show that the species abundance distribution of Amazonia is best approximated by a logseries with aggregated individuals, where aggregation increases with rarity. By averaging several methods to estimate total richness, we confirm that over 15,000 tree species are expected to occur in Amazonia. We also show that using ten times the number of plots would result in an increase to just ~50% of those 15,000 estimated species. To get a more complete sample of all tree species, rigorous field campaigns may be needed but the number of trees in Amazonia will remain an estimate for years to come. ; Publisher PDF ; Peer reviewed