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Background: Hypertension is a modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Various studies conducted in the world showed high prevalence of hypertension, which is in increasing trend in Nepal also. The aim of this study was to assess hypertension status and risk behaviours among adult population in Kirtipur Municipality. Methods: A cross sectional descriptive study was conducted among 580 adults of age 20 - 59 from December 2015 to April 2016. Data was collected by observation method to determine hypertension prevalence and Body Mass Index. Questionnaire was used to assess exposure to the risk factors. Results: Among all hypertension prevalence was 37.0% (215 out of 580). The prevalence was 41.6% (110 out of 264) among male and 32.2% (105 out of 316) among female (P <0.03 at 95% CI). Among 215 hypertensives, 37.2% were not aware about themselves having hypertension. Within last 12 months, 453 (78.1%) participants had checked their blood pressure. Proportion of hypertension was increasing with higher BMI and advancing age. Among all, 136 (23.7%) were current smokers, and 58.1% among them had hypertension.Conclusions: This study indicated that hypertension prevalence was high among adults in Kirtipur municipality. Prevalence of smoking was also high, and among them hypertension prevalence was very high. About one-third participants with hypertension were not aware that they had hypertension. Habit of doing regular physical exercise was very low.

Nepal Bhasa is a rich and highly developed language with a vast literature in both ancient and modern times. It is the language of Newar, mostly local inhabitant of Kathmandu. The once administrative language has been replaced by Nepali (Khas) language and has a limited area where it can be used. The language has faced almost 100 years of suppression and now is listed in the definitely endangered language list of UNESCO. Various revitalization programs have been brought up, but with limited success. This main goal of this thesis on Nepal Bhasa is to find the actual reason behind the fall of this language and hesitation of the people who know Nepal Bhasa to use it. Simultaneously, it tries to find the ways to revitalize the language. To find the main reason for the weakening of this language, I conducted semi-structured in-depth interviews to elicit the view of Newar people on this topic. A survey was conducted with the same purpose. With the help of my primary and secondary data I prove that due to the Linguistic hegemony of Nepali language, supported by Nepal's government, the area of Nepal Bhasa is curtailed hence leading it to the verge of extinction. The study also reveals how the government maintains the hegemony of Nepali language through its biased policy. At the end I present ways to revitalization as per the view of informants.

Land-use change, particularly the conversion of natural forest to agriculture to sustain the growing global population, has severe environmental impacts, including emission of greenhouse gases, diminished biodiversity, and altered soil functions. Agriculture intensification further reduces the fertility of soil, negatively impacting the sustainability of agriculture production and increasing the loss of soil organic carbon, which contributes to climate change. This thesis aims to assess the impacts of land-use systems on soil fertility and carbon sequestration. Due to its agricultural based economy, land is the most valuable resource in Nepal. The study site ''Chitwan district'' lies in the Terai region, a plain in southern Nepal. Known as the grain house of Nepal, the Terai region covers 17% of the country's total land area. Forests are dominated by Shorea robusta Roth and possess high economic value and biological diversity. People are extremely dependent on forests for timber and non-timber forest products. After eradication of malaria in the 1950s, the government introduced a resettlement and migration scheme from the Middle Mountain region to different parts of the Terai region, resulting in, massive deforestation to support cultivation and new settlements which continues to this day. Hence, the forest cover has been continuously declining. Agricultural intensification through conventional farming practices is also being implemented to feed the growing population. Soil samples were collected from three major land-use systems: forest, organic and conventional farming in Chitwan district, Nepal. The content of soil organic carbon (C), total nitrogen (N), microbial biomass (C and N) and six enzyme activities (β-glucosidase, cellobiohydrolase, chitinase, leucine aminopeptidase, tyrosine aminopeptidase, and sulfatase) were significantly higher under organic farming than conventional farming and forest, especially in topsoil layer. However, acid phosphatase activity was significantly higher (up to 6 fold) under conventional farming than forest and organic farming. The pools varying in P availability were estimated by P sequential fractionation approach (Hedley, 1982). The concentration of microbial biomass P, easily-available P, moderately available P, non-available P, and total P were much higher under organic farming than conventional farming and forest. However, the ratio of C to organic P was greater (>100) under conventional farming and forest than under organic farming, indicating the limitation of P in the former two land use systems. Indeed, higher acid phosphatase activity under conventional farming and forest is responsible for hydrolyzing organic P to be made available for plant growth. Various organic based management practices, i.e., application of farmyard manure and vermicompost, incorporation of crop residues, and cropping system under organic farming, contributed to increases in soil organic matter (SOM) and microbial properties, which play significant roles in maintaining soil fertility status. The decomposition of native SOM is regulated by availability of nutrients under different land use systems. Microbial-necromass, formed by fast growing r-strategist microorganisms under starvation conditions, contributed to increased decomposition of SOM (i.e. positive priming effect (PE)) following addition of 14C labelled glucose without nutrients to soil under organic farming. Conversely, K (slow growing) and L- (stress tolerant) microbial strategists in soil under conventional farming and forest, respectively, were responsible for the relatively low decomposition process. Addition of either a single nutrient (N or P) or multiple nutrients (N and P) with C showed opposing effects on decomposition processes in soil under different land use systems. Microorganisms utilized the added N and C under conventional farming and forest, which suppressed the decomposition process and caused a negative PE in these soils. Conversely, the microorganisms activated after P and C addition mined SOM to meet their demand for N, resulting in a positive PE in all land use systems. The decomposition of SOM was suppressed in soil under conventional farming and forest, however, microbial biomass was stable after addition of multiple nutrients. This could be due to reduction in active microbial biomass, which contributes to respiration in soil, instead of total microbial biomass. Additionally, bacterial community structure may be modified by protozoan infiltration following N addition, decelerating the decomposition process in these two land use systems. Microbial biomass increased by 18% in soil under organic farming after addition of multiple nutrients. Thus, the decomposition process increased to fulfil the metabolic requirements of an increased microbial population, resulting in a strong positive PE. The dominance of fast growing r-strategists in organic farming showed that microorganisms will utilize available C and nutrients for their growth, thus, higher incorporation of C into their biomass. Furthermore, microbial immobilization of N or P will be higher, which can be released and taken up by plants during turnover of microbial biomass or microbial death. Hence, organic farming has a great potential to promote soil fertility and C sequestration. In conclusion, the land-use change to organic farming positively affected soil and microbial properties, resulting in improved soil fertility and enhanced carbon sequestration. Farming, which aims at enhancing soil carbon pools and microbial activity, can address the challenge of sustaining food security while protecting the environment.

The urban population of the Nepal, like most of the Asian countries, is increasing rapidly owing to an influx of migrants from other parts of the regions who come to the capital in search of employment, education, better health services and security. The decade long conflict not only triggered rapid urbanization of cities by migration from rural parts of the country but also hindered the development of new cities and towns. Today, Nepal is in a transition phase and political transformation will take place sooner or later and there will be opportunities for development of new towns and cities as the country is progressing towards federal system. For the past few decades Kathmandu, the capital city has seen unprecedented changes in terms of urbanization. Kathmandu recorded the highest population growth rate in a decade with 60.93 percent and a population density of 4408/sq.km (CBS, 2011). In the absence of a strong planning and regulating body, lack of proper housing facilities and development of economic and social activities, degradation of environment and the undesirable urban sprawl is ever spreading. Houses are being built with no proper provision of road, water supply, drainage, electricity and telephone facility. From private led to government led projects, there have been a lot of land developments in the city to meet the land and housing demands. Land pooling or land readjustment scheme is regarded as one of the most successful tools for land development as it is a public private partnership scheme and involves community in the planning process. However, there are a number of issues and problems that exist in the land pooling areas as well. So far, there are no studies done to measure or evaluate the socio-economic impacts of such projects on the community and the neighborhood. In this context, this study aims to delve on the socio-economic impacts of land pooling projects on the community. The study has been carried out taking an example of Nayabazar land pooling project, which has been considered as one of the successful and fastest in implementation. The research has been carried out to measure different indicators of socio-economic impact assessment mainly change in demography, change in aesthetic quality of neighborhood, change in employment, income, change in retail/housing markets etc. The research has been carried out by conducting questionnaire surveys, interviews from key informants, informal focus group meetings and secondary data sources. The study recognized the issues behind the impacts of land pooling on the community both socially and economically. The literature framework and analysis facilitated to generate recommendations for to mitigate such impacts, which are taking place in Nayabazar land pooling area. One of the major findings of the study has been the lack of strong and decisive institution to take charge of management and further development of the study area. ; published_or_final_version ; Urban Planning and Design ; Master ; Master of Science in Urban Planning

This study focuses on Bhaktapur Durbar Square, one of the monument zone of Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Site which lies within a Bhaktapur city, an ancient historic town. Through survey research targeting local people and key informants interviews, this study tried to investigate on the domains of major impacts from the cultural tourism in Bhaktapur Durbar Square from the perspective of local community. The study then explores the different factors serving to generate the impacts from macro and micro level of context. Macro level deals with the international and national context whereas micro level deals with local context. Using data collection methods such as interviews with organizations involved in the management of WHS, tourism, expert interviews, primary and secondary data analysis, which is to explore factors affecting the generation of tourism impacts for the community, is carried out. By combining the research conducted at the community level and the many influencing factors, the study intends to explain the socio-economic-cultural heritage impacts at the community level in light of the management or governing process of the WHS, the institutional arrangement as well as the interactions between organizations, and in the context of policy – which is reflected in the current legal framework influencing the site. This study finds that cultural tourism in Bhaktapur has contributed significantly to local government's tax revenue particularly through tourist entry fee which in turn contributed in the conservation of the world heritage properties. However, the study also found that there have been limited positive impacts of cultural tourism for the majority of local people i.e. farmers group. Tourism has not encouraged the growth in the agriculture sector – a sector in which more than 60% of the farmers are involved. The concentrated tourism development at the core area of the city imparts the economic disparity among the people one who live in the core area and one beyond it. This study also found that tourism in Bhaktapur has limited impacts in raising the standard of living, household income, skills and training, infrastructure and public facilities. In the analysis of factors in the international context, this study argues that the nomination process, guidance from relevant international organizations and development in WHS discourse have influenced the cultural tourism development – although not directly. In terms of the national context, it finds that there is a lack of comprehensive policies and planning for conservation and tourism development which works in separate institutional framework. Analysis of factors in the local context, problems at the local area, such as decreasing agriculture land, inefficient management plan, lack of political commitment, lack of awareness and education, limited scope of work, lack of community organization, etc contribute to the perceived tourism impacts. This study finds institutional problems such as lack of planning mechanism, difficulties in coordination as well as legal framework that prevent the management system from working together to address local issues. This study recommends that a strong cooperation and coordination mechanism should be established under the framework of comprehensive community development and management plan in order to develop local economy alongside with tourism and contributing to wider benefits to the local community. A community based tourism strategy is recommended in order to reduce the disparity, directly benefiting the community and encouraging the local community to involve in decision making process. All of these efforts may help to realize at the micro level, the ideal of WHS for development that has been stated by organizations such as UNESCO in the macro level. ; published_or_final_version ; Urban Planning and Design ; Master ; Master of Science in Urban Planning

With increasing migration, commodification of land, and urbanization in Kathmandu, there is growing interaction and antagonism between local landowners and groups who wish to own land, which has generated a discourse about land. This paper considers perceptions, beliefs, practices, and policies about land as discourse on land. Such discourse included meanings and uses of land. On discourse about landownership, land seekers think that Newars do not need the land that they are historically owning, and land brokers (dalāls) are suggesting landowners to sell land and build houses or live off on the interest of the money by depositing it in the bank. Dalāls act not only as intermediaries between owners and buyers in the land market but as amplifiers and communicators, and often as creators, of discourse. The physical and socio-economic environment of Kathmandu is changing in such a way that landowners are unable to hold, or hold for long, their land, and they are becoming increasingly influenced by the discourse that land is a high-value commodity that should be sold. Such discourse can be explained by the political economic theory that considers the city as a growth machine that commodifies space for private profit-making and capital accumulation.