Suchergebnisse

Historia gwarancji swobodnego wyrażania poglądów sięga w Niemczech roku 1848 i jest uważana za jedno z najważniejszych praw podstawowych. Współcześnie wolność wyrażania poglądów zawarta jest w art. 5 Ustawy Zasadniczej. Stanowi ona konstytucyjną podstawę niezakłóconego funkcjonowania wszystkich mediów w Niemczech, opartego na niezależności i pluralizmie. Znaczenie wolności wyrażania poglądów dla rozwoju demokratycznego państwa prawa wielokrotnie w swoich orzeczeniach podkreślał Federalny Trybunał Konstytucyjny.

Social courts in the German Democratic Republic, as constitutional judicial organs, guaranteed the direct participation of citizens in the exercise of state power. They played an important role in the judicial system and in fact became the courts of the lowest instance. They settled disputes in the field of labour and civil law and adjudicated in cases of violations of criminal law. In retrospect, they can be assessed as a special type of court typical of the socialist system, the decisions of which were primarily of educational and preventive importance.

The German Democratic Republic, as a state of real socialism, guaranteed its citizens, in addition to classical individual fundamental rights, also collective rights. Their use was made conditional, depending on the fulfilment of obligations specified in the Constitution. In the GDR, there were no independent bodies and mechanisms to protect the rights of citizens. Constitutional system of fundamental rights was primarily serving the good of the community and the development of a modern socialist state.

Według art. 20 Ustawy Zasadniczej Republika Federalna Niemiec jest państwem demo-kratycznym, socjalnym i federalnym, w którym cała władza pochodzi od narodu i jest przez niego sprawowana poprzez wybory i głosowania. W praktyce głosowania, rozumiane jako instrument de-mokracji bezpośredniej, znajdują zastosowanie tylko w wypadku nowego podziału terytorialnego landów. Szersze zastosowanie instrumenty demokracji bezpośredniej mają przy stanowieniu pra-wa w poszczególnych landach. Prawo przewiduje w nich między innymi obywatelską inicjatywę ustawodawczą. Dla uchwalenia prawa federalnego zastosowanie takiego rozwiązania wymagałoby zmiany Ustawy Zasadniczej. Wnoszone do tej pory projekty takich zmian zostały jednak odrzucone przez Bundestag.

The prohibition of discrimination in the Polish legal system is based on numerous international agreements and conventions, as well as on various internal regulations. Article 32.2 of the Polish Constitution constitutes a general prohibition of discrimination. Nevertheless, it is a very vague statement, which needs to be determined by specific non-discrimination principles. Primarily, such regulations can be found in labour law provisions. Moreover, since January 1, 2011, "The Act on the Implementation of Certain Provisions of the European Union in the Field of Equal Treatment" has been in force. This Act implements five European Union directives, which introduce non-discrimination principles in various aspects of social life. According to article 1 of the Equal Treatment Act, discrimination is prohibited on the basis of: sex, race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, belief, outlook on life, disability, age or sexual orientation. The Equal Treatment Act designates Ombudsman and The Government Plenipotentiary for Equal Treatment as those organs which are responsible for the implementation of government policy in the field of equal treatment. Even though the latter institution had already existed in Poland before the Act entered into force, its functioning and appointment are determined by this regulation. The existence of specific provisions aimed at counteracting discrimination does not prevent abuses. Both Ombudsman and The Government Plenipotentiary for Equal Treatment frequently intervene with state authorities responsible (especially with the respective Ministers) in cases which constitute an infringement of the principle of non-discrimination. These actions are undertaken to introduce amendments in existing legal regulations, thus adapting them to certain obligations derived from the principles of equal treatment and non-discrimination. Keywords: Convention to protect your rights and liberties, Council of Europe, equal treatment, EU-La, Implementation International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, International Law.

The principle of the separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial powers is now recognized as being one of the basic characteristics of a democratic state both in the field of constitutional law and in jurisprudence. Legal commentators who reject it as a condition for determining the existence of a democracy are few and far between in the literature (e.g., W. Sokolewicz). These commentators stress that the separation of powers is mandatory insofar as it is essential to ensure judicial independence, but is not a requisite for justifying equality of position between executive power and legislative from whence it is but a small step to bureaucratic autocracy. Keywords: separation of powers, legislative, executive and judicial powers, democratic state, constitutional law, jurisprudence.