Suchergebnisse

Data on patent families is used in economic and statistical studies for many purposes, including the analysis of patenting strategies of applicants, the monitoring of the globalization of inventions and the comparison of the inventive performance and stock of technological knowledge of different countries. Most of these studies take family data as given, as a sort of black box, without going into the details of their underlying methodologies and patent linkages. However, different definitions of patent families may lead to different results. One of the purposes of this paper is to compare the most commonly used definitions of patent families and identify factors causing differences in family outcomes. Another objective is to shed light into the internal structure of patent families and see how it affects patent family outcomes based on different definitions. An automated characterization of the internal structures of all extended families with earliest priorities in the 1990s, as recorded in PATSTAT, found that family counts are not affected by the choice of patent family definitions in 75% of families. However, different definitions may really matter for the 25% of families with complex structures and lead to different family compositions, which might have an impact, for instance, on econometric studies using family size as a proxy of patent value. ; Support from the OECD and the Spanish Government through the Ministry of Science and Innovation (CSO2009-10845) is acknowledged. ; Peer Reviewed

Durante las dos últimas décadas, el emprendimiento social se ha convertido en un fenómeno relevante, ya que soluciona cuestiones sociales críticas que los gobiernos han desatendido o no han sido capaces de resolver. De hecho, este tipo de iniciativa empresarial ha llegado a ser considerada como un mecanismo necesario para ayudar en las zonas consideradas no rentables por el sector privado. En los últimos quince años ha aumentado el interés y la atención por el emprendimiento social. Esto puede deberse al reconocimiento de la importante contribución de este tipo de empresas a la sociedad. Las empresas sociales han nacido para luchar contra la exclusión social, la revitalización de zonas desfavorecidas, dar trabajo a los desempleados y, en general, ofrecer productos y servicios innovadores para solucionar problemas sociales desatendidos por los sectores público y privado. El emprendimiento social, como ámbito científico, ha atraído recientemente el interés de los investigadores. Sin embargo, los estudios se han centraron principalmente en delimitar su concepto, de ahí que se afirme que si se desea avanzar en su conocimiento se debe cambiar el enfoque de investigación llevado a cabo hasta ahora, incorporando las ideas de las teorías y enfoques sobre emprendimiento ya existentes. Por lo tanto, para que se legitime el emprendimiento social, en cierta medida, la investigación en esta área debe replicar la evolución teórica y empírica del emprendimiento, aplicando estos conocimientos al caso concreto del emprendimiento social. Siguiendo esta recomendación, este estudio se basa en las premisas básicas del emprendimiento. En primer lugar, se considera que los emprendedores poseen características concretas que hacen que se incremente la probabilidad de crear una empresa. En segundo lugar, también se afirma que el emprendimiento está condicionado por las instituciones específicas de cada país, de ahí los diferentes niveles de emprendimiento entre países. En particular, para estudiar la influencia del perfil del emprendedor, se han analizado, por un lado, variables objetivas como son el nivel educativo, la edad y género y, por otro lado, variables relacionadas con la percepción del individuo, como es el caso de la socialización, autoeficacia percibida, miedo al fracaso y estado de alerta ante oportunidades no explotadas. Estas últimas están relacionadas con las percepciones y las creencias de la persona, pero no necesariamente reflejan circunstancias objetivas, aunque sí ayudan a entender por qué algunos individuos son más propensos que otros a convertirse en emprendedores. Por otra parte, con el fin de analizar la influencia del entorno, se estudia el perfil institucional del país a través de cuatro dimensiones que explican cómo las políticas y los programas gubernamentales, la cultura, el mercado y los valores de dicho país afectan al emprendimiento social. Para aumentar la importancia de este estudio, además, se ha analizado la variación de la actividad empresarial comercial y social (TEA y SEA) entre países y las razones que pueden explicar dichas diferencias. Aunque el emprendimiento está revitalizando algunas economías y ha facilitado el crecimiento económico en muchas otras, la literatura aún es muy limitada a la hora de explicar por qué las tasas de emprendimiento varían entre países y por qué las nuevas empresas pueden ser más exitosas en un país que en otro. Por último, la literatura señala que la mayoría de las investigaciones sobre el emprendedor social son cualitativas. Principalmente, predominan las revisiones teóricas y el estudio de casos, que analiza historias de emprendedores sociales. Este tipo de estudios limita el alcance y la generalización de sus resultados, por lo que es necesario realizar investigaciones cuantitativas con grandes muestras. Aunque la investigación sobre emprendimiento social es escasa, la falta de estudios empíricos ha puesto aún más límites a la hora de comprender este tipo de emprendimiento. Dada la escasez de estudios empíricos rigurosos, este trabajo se ha realizado con metodología cuantitativa, utilizando una muestra representativa de población adulta obtenida de la base de datos del proyecto Global Entrepreneurship Monitor del año 2009 (GEM). El GEM es calificado por multitud de autores como el proyecto de estudio sobre emprendimiento con la mejor base de datos a nivel mundial, de hecho sus datos han sido citados en los principales medios de comunicación y, también, utilizados en investigaciones publicadas en las principales revistas académicas. Los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo llevan a afirmar que los emprendedores comerciales suelen ser hombres jóvenes, con alto nivel de educación, que por lo general han conocido a otros emprendedores, que perciben oportunidades de negocio, que se sienten capaces de iniciar un negocio y que tienen bajo nivel de miedo al fracaso. El perfil del emprendedor social en los países desarrollados es similar a este. Sin embargo, conforme disminuye el nivel de desarrollo solo se puede afirmar que es un individuo con ejemplos de emprendedores en su vida y que siente capaz de crear una empresa, no influyéndole ni el género, la edad, el nivel de estudios ni la percepción de oportunidades. Por otro lado, se confirma que las variables institucionales condicionan de forma similar a ambos emprendimientos. No obstante, es necesario matizar que la fuerza de la relación entre las variables introducidas en el modelo y las tasas de emprendimiento es más fuerte en el caso del emprendedor comercial. Over the last two decades social entreprenurship has become an important phenomenon, receiving widespread media attention due to the growth of critical social issues and the belief that traditional approaches of government will not be enough to address social problems. This type of entrepreneurship came to be seen as an important mechanism for supporting economic activities in areas deemed unprofitable by the private sector. In the past 15 years the interest and attention to social entrepreneurship has increased. This may be due to the recognition of the important contribution made by this type of business to society. Social enterprises are born to combat social exclusion, revitalize deprived areas, communities and locales, provide work for the unemployed and generally offer innovative products and services previously overlooked by the private and public sectors, especially for hard-to-reach groups. Social entrepreneurship as a scholarly field of study has recently attracted the interest of researches. While early studies draw attention to the concept and domain of the construct, it is widely recognized that the focus of entrepreneur research should be incorporating ideas from existing theories and approaches in entrepreneurship. To legitimate social entrepreneurship as a domain of academic inquiry, research on this area has to some extent replicate the empirical and theoretical evolution of entrepreneurship, examining valuable assumptions and insights from theories inherent in existing entrepreneurship frameworks and applying these insights in ways that address phenomena in the social entrepreneurship context. Also, studies might test the scope and generalizability of theoretical propositions, antecedents or consequences using large scale quantitative data set. Following this recommendation in this study we base our research upon to basic premises in entrepreneurship. First, firms are managed by individuals with its own characteristics that promote or inhibit new venture creation. Secondly, we also assert that firms are embedded in country-specific institutional arrangements that may also bring about different levels of entrepreneurial activity across countries. Particularly, to study the influence of entrepreneur's profile, we analysed specific individual differences in education, age, gender, or some personal attributes related with subjective perceptions related to confidence in entrepreneur's social experiences, socialization, skills and ability, risk propensity, and alertness to unexploited opportunities. These variables are related to perceptions and beliefs of the individual but do not necessarily reflect objective circumstances, although they do help in understanding why some individuals are more likely than others to become entrepreneurs Moreover, in order to analyze the environment influence, we study a four dimensional country institutional profile to explain how a country's government policies and programs, widely shared social knowledge, market, and value systems affect social entrepreneurship. To increase the interest of this study we paid attention to the cross-national variation in commercial and social entrepreneurial activity (TEA and SEA) and the reasons behind this phenomenon. Although entrepreneurship is currently revitalizing some formerly planned economies, and it has facilitated economic growth in many other; scholars have only a limited understanding of why rates of entrepreneurship vary cross-nationally and why certain types of start-ups may be more successful in one country than in another. Finally, as many studies point out, the majority of extant research on social entrepreneurship are theoretical or qualitative, based on case studies that introduce powerful and heroic stories of various types of social entrepreneurs. Studies in this field might test the scope and generalizability of theoretical propositions, antecedents or consequences using large scale quantitative data set. Although there exists some broad research on social entrepreneurship the lack of empirical studies has placed limits on our understanding of the important antecedents and outcomes of social entrepreneurship. Given the scarcity of rigorous empirical studies, this study took a quantitative approach to social entrepreneurship using a representative sample of the adult population of the 2009 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). GEM is widely acknowledged to be the best source of comparative entrepreneurship data in the world and has been cited extensively in leading news outlets and utilized in research published in leading academic journals. Our results lead us to say that commercial entrepreneurs use to be young men with high level of education, that usually have met other entrepreneurs, who perceive business opportunities, feel enough capabilities to start a business and has also low level of fear of failure. However, with decreasing levels of development can only say that it is an individual with examples of entrepreneurs in your life and you feel able to start a business. In this entrepreneur will not condition or gender, age, educational level and perceived opportunities. On the other hand, we can affirm that institutional factors have a similar influence on both types of entrepreneurship. However, it must be highlighted that the relation between dependent variables is stronger in commercial entrepreneurship.

[ES] El trabajo Fin de Máster que se presenta a continuación consta de dos partes diferenciadas, una fundamentación epistemológica y una programación didáctica. En la primera parte se aborda la atención a la diversidad, en el ámbito educativo, como tema prioritario a tener en cuenta por las Administraciones educativas para ofrecer una respuesta educativa inclusiva, la cual fomente el pleno desarrollo de su alumnado y elimine prácticas segregadoras. En referencia a la segunda parte, se propone una programación didáctica para el alumnado del módulo profesional de Apoyo a la Intervención Educativa, del Ciclo Formativo de Grado Superior de Integración Social, aplicando los contenidos teóricos expuestos en la primera parte de una forma práctica con el propósito de enseñarles a reconocer e identificar las diferentes características del alumnado con necesidades específicas de apoyo educativo sin perder de vista principios fundamentales, y amparados en la legislación educativa vigente, tales como equidad e inclusión. ; [EN] The Final Master's degree consists of two different parts, an epistemological foundation and a didactic program. The first part deals with the attention to diversity, in the educational field, as a crucial issue to be considered by the educational administrations to offer an inclusive educational response, which encourages the full development of its students and eliminates segregating practices. Regarding to the second part, a didactic program has been designed for the students of the professional module of Support for Educational Intervention, of the upper grade educational Cycle of Social Integration, applying the theoretical contents explained in the first part in a practical way with the purpose of teaching them to recognize and identify the different characteristics of students with specific educational support needs without losing sight of fundamental principles, and protected by current educational legislation, such as equity and inclusion.

This paper provides a theoretical rationale for private investment in basic research. It explains the decision by some firms to hire scientists who have an intrinsic motivation to pursue academic research and allow them to do so while they also dedicate time to the firm's applied agenda. We show that this decision maximizes firms' profits in a context where basic and applied research activities are not strong substitutes and the opportunity cost, associated with deterring scientists from remaining in academia, is sufficiently low. Allowing scientists to pursue an academic agenda facilitates participation. When scientists are privately informed about their 'taste for science', the contract requires that the more academically driven scientists dedicate greater attention to their personal agenda to satisfy incentive compatibility. When the reservation utility is weakly correlated with the scientist's academic inclination, this restriction has no impact and the first best contract remains optimal. But as the correlation increases, the firms tend to select less academically driven scientists. Under-investment in basic research is not triggered by the need to reduce informational rents which are non-existent as scientists face counter vailing incentives. Instead it arises from the need to curb the increased cost of efforts. ; We acknowledge funding from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (CSO 2012-32844 and CSO2016-79045-C2-1-R) and the Regional Government of Madrid (S2015/HUM-3491 PRODECON-CM). ; Peer reviewed

Peer reviewed ; This paper provides a theoretical rationale for private investment in basic research. It explains the decision by some firms to hire scientists who have an intrinsic motivation to pursue academic research and allow them to do so while they also dedicate time to the firm's applied agenda. We show that this decision maximizes firms' profits in a context where basic and applied research activities are not strong substitutes and the opportunity cost, associated with deterring scientists from remaining in academia, is sufficiently low. Allowing scientists to pursue an academic agenda facilitates participation. When scientists are privately informed about their 'taste for science', the contract requires that the more academically driven scientists dedicate greater attention to their personal agenda to satisfy incentive compatibility. When the reservation utility is weakly correlated with the scientist's academic inclination, this restriction has no impact and the first best contract remains optimal. But as the correlation increases, the firms tend to select less academically driven scientists. Under-investment in basic research is not triggered by the need to reduce informational rents which are non-existent as scientists face counter vailing incentives. Instead it arises from the need to curb the increased cost of efforts. We acknowledge funding from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (CSO 2012-32844 and CSO2016-79045-C2-1-R) and the Regional Government of Madrid (S2015/HUM-3491 PRODECON-CM).

We study the location of the inventive activity of 59 major European food and beverage multinationals and their 8432 subsidiaries worldwide, by analysing the geographical distribution of the inventors listed in the European Patent Office (EPO) applications, US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) patents and triadic, international and Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) patent families of the companies filed between 1978 and the early 2000s. The sampled companies tend to locate their R&D activities in the home country. EU-based companies, more specifically, deploy an intra-regional strategy in EU countries, especially with regard to the inventions most closely related to their core businesses (food), for which, however, they do not display a home-country preference. Inventions related to non-core business tend to be produced in extra-regional locations. ; Ruth Rama acknowledges support provided by the PRIME project, European Union, and Catalina Martínez thanks support from CSIC (200610I142). ; Peer Reviewed

32 págs. ; Using a sample of 59 major European food and beverage multinationals and their 8,432 subsidiaries worldwide, we study the characteristics and evolution over time of their inventions. In doing so, we analyse: i) 8,626 EPO applications filed by these companies between 1978 and 2005; ii) 3,650 US patents they applied for between 1978 and 2001; iii) more than 2,000 patent families of three different kinds; and iv) the location of their R&D entres of excellence. We find that the internationalisation of invention is in reality chiefly a European phenomenon for these companies, which also tend to retain their key R&D strategic assets within their home countries or in neighbouring countries. The innovations of EU-based companies which are most closely related to their core businesses tend to be located in EU countries; however, such companies do not display a geographical preference with regard to high value or technically complex innovations, which are generated at home and abroad and inside and outside the EU. From these findings we extract conclusions relevant to European R&D policy. ; Peer reviewed

AbstractEntrepreneurship is considered fundamental to economic development since entrepreneurs generate their own economic benefit and indirectly promote employment, boost innovation, and attract human and financial resources and investment in infrastructure to the territory, among other benefits. Latin America has very high rates of entrepreneurship, so to deepen our knowledge of the factors that influence entrepreneurship, it is necessary to investigate the region. This article tests various theories of factors (self-efficacy, fear of failure, perception of opportunity, and socialization) that determine the decision to become an entrepreneur, using a quantitative methodology with a representative sample of 27,341 Latin American individuals (including 4,416 entrepreneurs). The results partially support these factors and show that Latin American entrepreneurs differ from the profile indicated in previous literature. In addition, results seem to indicate that the level of development of a country determines the strength with which the factors studied influence entrepreneurship.

La pandemia actual -COVID19- ha llevado a muchos gobiernos a tomar medidas drásticas en respuesta a la crisis de salud global. Las medidas de bloqueo como respuesta a la crisis han frenado aún más las actividades económicas a nivel mundial. En este contexto destaca la importancia del papel de los emprendedores para acelerar la recuperación económica. Este trabajo se centra en analizar cómo los emprendedores enfrentan la situación causada por la COVID-19 a través de un estudio cuantitativo con una muestra de 236 emprendedores españoles ubicados geográficamente en la Región de Murcia. Los resultados muestran cómo los emprendedores han tenido que adaptarse a estas nuevas circunstancias enfrentándose a desafíos como la necesidad de digitalización, la falta de financiamiento, la disminución del capital humano o la percepción de nuevas oportunidades que se conviertan en negocios viables. ; The current pandemic (COVID19) have led many governments to take drastic measures in respond of the global health crisis. The lockdown measures as a response to the crisis has further slowed global economic activities. In this context highlights the importance of the role of entrepreneurs to accelerate economic recovery. This paper focuses on analyzing how entrepreneurs face the situation caused by COVID-19 through a quantitative study with a sample of 236 Spanish entrepreneurs from the Region of Murcia. Results show how entrepreneurs have had to adapt to these new circumstances, facing challenges regarding the need for digitization, the lack of financing, the decrease in human capital or the perception of new opportunities that become viable businesses.

The current pandemic (COVID19) have led many governments to take drastic measures in respond of the global health crisis. The lockdown measures as a response to the crisis has further slowed global economic activities. In this context highlights the importance of the role of entrepreneurs to accelerate economic recovery. This paper focuses on analyzing how entrepreneurs face the situation caused by COVID-19 through a quantitative study with a sample of 236 Spanish entrepreneurs from the Region of Murcia. Results show how entrepreneurs have had to adapt to these new circumstances, facing challenges regarding the need for digitization, the lack of financing, the decrease in human capital or the perception of new opportunities that become viable businesses. ; La pandemia actual -COVID19- ha llevado a muchos gobiernos a tomar medidas drásticas en respuesta a la crisis de salud global. Las medidas de bloqueo como respuesta a la crisis han frenado aún más las actividades económicas a nivel mundial. En este contexto destaca la importancia del papel de los emprendedores para acelerar la recuperación económica. Este trabajo se centra en analizar cómo los emprendedores enfrentan la situación causada por la COVID-19 a través de un estudio cuantitativo con una muestra de 236 emprendedores españoles ubicados geográficamente en la Región de Murcia. Los resultados muestran cómo los emprendedores han tenido que adaptarse a estas nuevas circunstancias enfrentándose a desafíos como la necesidad de digitalización, la falta de financiamiento, la disminución del capital humano o la percepción de nuevas oportunidades que se conviertan en negocios viables.

Los emprendedores sociales son personas que, observando problemas sociales generalmente desatendidos por gobiernos e instituciones públicas, deciden resolver estas situaciones creando nuevas empresas. Son escasos los estudios empíricos que profundizan en el conocimiento de este grupo de emprendedores y, en particular, en las variables que inciden en la decisión de crear una empresa social. Esta investigación, utilizando los datos del proyecto Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM), analiza la influencia en la decisión de convertirse en emprendedor social de tres variables cognitivas, miedo al fracaso, percepción de oportunidades y autoeficacia. Además, se comparan los resultados obtenidos para los emprendedores sociales con una muestra de emprendedores comerciales. La principal conclusión de este trabajo es que la influencia de las variables cognitivas en el perfil de los emprendedores es diferente.

Peer Reviewed ; This paper has benefited from helpful comments made by anonymous referees and by the participants of European Policy on Intellectual Property Conference (Munich, 2003), Association Française de Science Economique Congress (2003), Conference in Honour of Zvi Griliches (Paris, 2003). Economic theory views patents as policy instruments aimed at fostering innovation and diffusion. Three major implications are drawn regarding current policy debates. First, patents may not be the most effective means of protection for inventors to recover R&D investments when imitation is costly and first mover advantages are important. Second, patentability requirements, such as novelty or non-obviousness, should be sufficiently stringent to avoid the grant of patents for inventions with low social value that increase the social cost of the patent system. Third, the trade-off between the patent policy instruments of length and breadth could be used to provide sufficient incentives to develop inventions with high social value. Beyond these three implications, economic theory also pleads for a mechanism design approach: an optimal patent system could be based on a menu of different degrees of patent protection where stronger protection would involve higher fees, allowing self-selection by inventors.

The models of economic growth in Latin America and the Caribbean are characterized by a political and economic concentration in big cities, leaving the rural world behind and neglecting the basic needs of a large portion of the population. It is because of this, that the region has chosen the Rural & Territorial Development as an answer and as an alternative to the traditional models, understanding that only endogenous development in each particular territory will be successful. This work aims to make a reflection on why the farming and agriculture cooperatives are means of the Rural & Territorial Development based on the work experience of the NGO CESAL in The Dominican Republic. ; Los modelos de desarrollo de los países de América Latina y el Caribe se caracterizan por una alta concentración económica y política en las grandes ciudades dejando el mundo rural en un segundo plano lo que implica desatender las necesidades de una gran porción de la población. Es así como en la región se ha optado por el el Desarrollo Territorial Rural como una respuesta y alternativa a los modelos tradicionales, que plantea el desarrollo a partir de la comprensión de que éste sólo se logra de manera endógena a cada territorio particular. Este trabajo pretende hacer una reflexión del porque el cooperativismo agropecuario es una vía para el Desarrollo Territorial Rural basándose en la experiencia del trabajo de la ONG Cesal en República Dominicana.