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This book is a comparative history devoted to the revolutionary tradition in the West as it evolved over many centuries and reached its logical, though extreme, culmination in the Communist revolutions of the twentieth century. Unique in the breadth of its scope, "History's Locomotives" is also unique in its interpretation of the origins and history of socialism as well as the meanings of the Russian Revolution, the rise of the Soviet regime, and the ultimate collapse of the Soviet Union. The masterwork of a historian in whom a fine sense of historical particularity never interfered with the ability to see the large picture, this book explores religious conflicts in fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Europe, the revolutions in England, American, and France, and the twentieth-century Russian explosions into revolution. Malia finds that twentieth-century revolutions have deep roots in European history and that revolutionary thought and action underwent a process of radicalization from one great revolution to the next. He offers an original view of the phenomenon of revolution and a fascinating assessment of its power as a driving force in history

The doctrine of intertemporality prohibits the retroactive application of norms of international law in contentious proceedings and obliges the deciding court to positively ascertain the applicable historic rules. In situations in which the historic interaction between a European and a non-European entity needs to be litigated, problems arise. International law is lacking a universally recognised methodology, particularly regarding its unwritten rules. Also, the historic non-European peoples were often relied on oral tradition and did not produce any documentary evidence of their historic legal orders. -- Historically, different regions of the world produced independent legal regimes. »Meta law« governing the interactions between entities of different regimes was non-existent since no regional order did claim global rule. Hence there were no rules governing the interactions between European and non-European entities. -- The applicable historic law is presently ascertained by recourse to specific European phenomena. In contentious proceedings, this methodology leads to a situation of »différend« – a situation in which the method of solving the dispute already vindicates the position of one of the parties to the dispute.