Suchergebnisse

Janet Martin, Muscovy's northeastern expansion: the context and a cause.
Muscovite expansion to the northeast occurred in two stages. The first, which resulted in the annexation of the Vychegda-Vym' region in the fourteenth century, was an outgrowth of Muscovy's relations with Novgorod. The second, which took place in the latter half of the fifteenth century, led to the subordination of Viatka, Perm' Velikaia, and some of the Voguly and Iugra tribes as far away as the Ob' river. The second stage was closely connected with two competing influences, Muscovy's relations with the Khanate of Kazan' and its internal relations with Ustiug.
An examination of the chronicle accounts of the measures taken to subordinate the peoples on the Viatka, upper Kama, and Ob' rivers suggests that these episodes were initiated by Ustiug. That northern trade center was evidently trying to secure a trade route that would link it via Cherdyn' to the fur-supplying northeastern tribes; that route would bypass Ustiug's rival, Kazan'. Moscow, which benefited from the ventures through the receipt of tribute payments in sable from the subordinated tribes, supported Ustiug's drive to the northeast despite the fact that it provoked hostile responses from Kazan'. But Moscow withdrew its support after 1487, when the assumption of the Kazan' throne by a pro-Muscovite khan altered the nature of Muscovy's relations with its Tatar neighbors. Those relations then took precedence over Ustiug's pressures as a determinant of Muscovy's northeastern policies. Moscow, with the exception of a few incidents that occurred when its relations with Kazan' were strained, refrained from pursuing its aggressive policies in the northeast well into the sixteenth century.

Janet Martin, The land of darkness and the Golden Horde. The fur trade under the Mongols. XIII-XIVth centuries.
At the time the Mongols conquered the Volga Bulgars and the Russian land, the fur trade system they found was already a reduced form of the extensive system that in previous centuries had supplied northern luxury fur to "all ends of the world". In contrast, the XIIIth-century system dealt mainly with local fur, which was sold at Sudak to Seljuk Turk merchants. After the initial devastation caused by their conquest, however, the Mongols at Sarai stimulated a renewal of traffic in luxury fur. Rostov and later Moscow, by tapping Novgorod's fur supplies as they were transported from the northeast through Ustiug, and Bulgar, by developing a new access route along the Kama river to the fur-hunting tribes of the northeast, were able to obtain northern sable, ermine, and other furs, which they sent down the Volga to Sarai. That city became not only a consuming center of northern fur, but also a commercial transit center, from which luxury fur was shipped westward to the Italian merchants stationed in the Crimea and eastward through Central Asia as far as India and China.

Janet Martin, Les uškujniki de Novgorod : marchands ou pirates ?
Au cours de la seconde moitié du XIVe siècle, alors que s'engageait une lutte pour s'assurer le contrôle de la Moyenne-Volga, les uškujniki de Novgorod dirigèrent une série d'expéditions dans cette région. On a proposé dans le passé diverses interprétations de ces expéditions, qu'on a qualifiées d'actes de pillage, de piraterie. Cependant, une analyse des Chroniques russes révèle qu'elles avaient un double but. Les violents raids contre Kostroma, Žukotin et Vjatka visaient à préserver le monopole de Novgorod sur son arrière-pays septentrional, monopole que les princes russes du Nord-Est et Bulgar tentèrent de lui disputer. D'autres raids furent dirigés contre Bulgar et Nižnij -Novgorod, principaux centres commerciaux de la Moyenne-Volga. Lorsqu'ils étaient couronnés de succès, ces raids étaient suivis d'expéditions commerciales, pacifiques, et ce sont précisément ces dernières qui incitèrent les autorités locales russes et tatares à riposter le plus violemment et à tenter de soumettre les uškujniki. Ce schéma suggère que les raids ďuškujniki avaient pour second objectif de forcer les centres de commerce de la Moyenne-Volga à consentir aux Novgorodiens l'accès direct à l'axe commercial Volga-Kama.

In this work, Martin studies the influence of women on and in the American executive branch, studying the presidencies of Kennedy through Carter to demonstrate both the growth of women's involvement in policy making and the political showcasing of women appointees.