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Debates about post-truth need to take into account how news re-disseminates in a hybrid media system in which social networks and audience participation play a central role. Hence, there is a certain risk of reducing citizens' exposure to politically adverse news content, creating 'echo chambers' of political affinity. This article presents the results of research conducted in agreement with 18 leading Spanish online news media, based on a survey (N = 6625) of their registered users. The results highlight that high levels of selective exposure that are a characteristic of offline media consumption are being moderated in the online realm. Although most of the respondents get news online from like-minded media, the figures related to those who also get news from media with a different media ideology should not be underestimated. As news consumption is becoming more 'social,' our research points out that Spanish citizens who are more active on social media sites are more likely to be exposed to news content from different ideological positions than those who are less active users. There is a weak association between the use of a particular social network site and gaining access to like- and non-like-minded news.

Debates about post-truth need to take into account how news re-disseminates in a hybrid media system in which social networks and audience participation play a central role. Hence, there is a certain risk of reducing citizens' exposure to politically adverse news content, creating 'echo chambers' of political affinity. This article presents the results of research conducted in agreement with 18 leading Spanish online news media, based on a survey (N = 6625) of their registered users. The results highlight that high levels of selective exposure that are a characteristic of offline media consumption are being moderated in the online realm. Although most of the respondents get news online from like-minded media, the figures related to those who also get news from media with a different media ideology should not be underestimated. As news consumption is becoming more 'social,' our research points out that Spanish citizens who are more active on social media sites are more likely to be exposed to news content from different ideological positions than those who are less active users. There is a weak association between the use of a particular social network site and gaining access to like- and non-like-minded news.

In little over a decade, essential concepts in research on communication have become zombie concepts (Beck & Willms, 2004) and are no longer effective for understanding the profound transformation that has taken place with the arrival of the internet. Public sphere, deliberation, audiences, public., the academic literature has oscillated between an initial optimism about the potential for strengthening democracy of communication technologies to a critical scepticism. This text reviews the academic literature with regard to the forms of social deliberation adopted in the context of the media and social networks and its impact on the public sphere.

Within the current hybrid media system, in which the "old" and "new" media coexist, the role of social networks in the consumption of news has become increasingly important in recent years. Previous research has highlighted the importance and the transformational potential of user interactions in social networks in the traditional news cycle, when exchanging or discussing content related to news or public affairs, jeopardizing the traditional hegemony of the journalists and media as gatekeepers of public affairs. Our research follows a mixed methodological approach (survey plus focus groups) that reach relevant conclusions that expands the body of research about the role of news sites and social networks within the formulation of public opinion and its effects on audiences and journalism. Results showed how news sites and social networks, through links posted by friends, relatives, or acquaintances, facilitate people to access news outside their usual patterns of news consumption. Social networks, in this way, could break with the preestablished dynamics of selective exposure of individuals.

In the current media ecosystem, in which the traditional media coexists with new players who are able to produce information and spread it widely, there is growing concern about the increasing prominence of fake news. Despite some significant efforts to determine the effects of misinformation, the results are so far inconclusive. Previous research has sought to analyze how the public perceive the effects of disinformation. This article is set in this context, and its main objective is to investigate users' perception of fake news, as well as identify the criteria on which their recognition strategies are based. The research pays particular attention to determining whether there are gender differences in the concern about the effects of fake news, the degree of difficulty in detecting fake news and the most common topics it covers. The results are based on the analysis of a representative survey of the Spanish population (N = 1,001) where participants were asked about their relationship with fake news and their competence in determining the veracity of the information, and their ability to identify false content were assessed. The findings show that men and women's perception of difficulty in identifying fake news is similar, while women are more concerned than men about the pernicious effects of misinformation on society. Gender differences are also found in the topics of the false information received. A greater proportion of men receive false news on political issues, while women tend to more frequently receive fake news about celebrities.

In the current media ecosystem, in which the traditional media coexists with new players who are able to produce information and spread it widely, there is growing concern about the increasing prominence of fake news. Despite some significant efforts to determine the effects of misinformation, the results are so far inconclusive. Previous research has sought to analyze how the public perceive the effects of disinformation. This article is set in this context, and its main objective is to investigate users' perception of fake news, as well as identify the criteria on which their recognition strategies are based. The research pays particular attention to determining whether there are gender differences in the concern about the effects of fake news, the degree of difficulty in detecting fake news and the most common topics it covers. The results are based on the analysis of a representative survey of the Spanish population (N = 1,001) where participants were asked about their relationship with fake news and their competence in determining the veracity of the information, and their ability to identify false content were assessed. The findings show that men and women's perception of difficulty in identifying fake news is similar, while women are more concerned than men about the pernicious effects of misinformation on society. Gender differences are also found in the topics of the false information received. A greater proportion of men receive false news on political issues, while women tend to more frequently receive fake news about celebrities.

El Media Pluralism Monitor (MPM) es una herramienta diseñada para identificar los potenciales riesgos para el pluralismo mediático en los estados miembros de la Unión Europea. Esta informe se ha elaborado en el marco de la primera implementación paneuropea del MPM, realizada en 2016, con financiación procedente de las medidas preparatorias del Parlamento Europeo. La implementación se llevó a cabo en los 28 estados miembros de la UE, Montenegro y Turquía con el apoyo económico de la Unión Europea al Centre for Media Pluralism and Media Freedom (CMPF) de la European University Institute ; The Media Pluralism Monitor (MPM) is a tool designed to identify potential risks to media pluralism in the member states of the European Union. This report has been prepared in the framework of the first pan-European implementation of the MPM, carried out in 2016, with funding from the preparatory measures of the European Parliament. The implementation was carried out in the 28 EU member states, Montenegro and Turkey with the financial support of the European Union to the Centre for Media Pluralism and Media Freedom (CMPF) of the European University Institute

This report was co-funded by the European Commission ; Two versions available: English and Spanish

Audience participation, in any of its forms and names (public journalism, citizen journalism, participatory journalism, UGC), appears to revitalise democracy, thanks to the opportunities for public debate opened up by information and communications technology. On the other hand, however, there are many authors who question whether interactive technologies really encourage democracy or the market, empower the citizen or strengthen the consumer. In this context, we still have little information on the motivations that drive citizens to actively participate through the mechanisms that the media make available to them on their own websites or through social networks. There is a similar lack of information on the role that users attribute to their involvement in the functioning of the media and whether it contributes to improving their democratic function. This article aims to shed some light on this subject.

Audience participation, in any of its forms and names (public journalism, citizen journalism, participatory journalism, UGC), appears to revitalise democracy, thanks to the opportunities for public debate opened up by information and communications technology. On the other hand, however, there are many authors who question whether interactive technologies really encourage democracy or the market, empower the citizen or strengthen the consumer. In this context, we still have little information on the motivations that drive citizens to actively participate through the mechanisms that the media make available to them on their own websites or through social networks. There is a similar lack of information on the role that users attribute to their involvement in the functioning of the media and whether it contributes to improving their democratic function. This article aims to shed some light on this subject.

"Concerns about disinformation have witnessed extraordinary growth since the mid-2010s, despite the spread of false and distorted messages in the public arena not being a new phenomenon. In 2016, the Oxford Dictionary declared 'post-truth' as its word of the year, highlighting a historical and political time in which disinformation strategies reached new heights, fueled by the hybridization of the communicative ecosystem (Chadwick 2013) in a context of increasing polarization and populism. The election of Donald Trump in 2016 or the Brexit referendum the same year were milestones in the awareness of the role manipulative messages play and their effects on political decisions, particularly in times of crisis (Spence, Lachlan, Edwards, and Edwards 2016). Disinformation strategies take advantage of social networks to go viral quickly, and benefit from another of these networks' inherent characteristics: their ability to discriminate and stratify the public according to the most diverse criteria (Wagner and Boczkowski 2019). Any person or company with a sufficiently large and specialized database can now distribute content among the public according to multiple criteria, allowing much more to be known about their tastes, hobbies, opinions, etc. than in the past. In fact, public participation data on social networks (who they follow, in which groups they participate, what content they share, etc.) is one of the main elements that helps increase the effectiveness of the messages sent to the public. The snowball of disinformation can, in fact, feed itself and improve its effectiveness in each wave (Tucker et al. 2018)"--

Comments in online news could be the contemporary enactment of the eighteenth-century cafés that founded public sphere. This article assesses to what extent do these forms of digital discussion fit in Habermas' principles for democratic debate, using his discursive ethics as a demanding normative benchmark. The sample of more than 15,000 comments was selected from the online versions of five national newspapers of record from different political and journalistic contexts: The Guardian (United Kingdom), Le Monde (France), The New York Times (United States), El País (Spain), and La Repubblica (Italy). The ethical guidelines and legal frameworks set up by the newspapers as well as their moderation strategies were considered to understand the different settings of the conversations. Two models of audience participation emerge from the analysis, one where communities of debate are formed based on mostly respectful discussions between diverse points of view and another of homogenous communities, in which expressing feelings about current events dominates the contributions and there is less of an argumentative debate.

Crowdfunding offers enormous possibilities for marketing and communication, given that it facilitates the circulation of new projects, generates audiences and creates a loyal social base. Nevertheless, experiences of crowdfunding can be diverse. The aims of this investigation are threefold; to analyse crowdfunding platforms in Spain by means of quantitative and qualitative research methods (descriptive and relational); carry out a comparative study of the efficiency index of crowdfunding campaigns for profit-making projects as compared with campaigns raising money for social causes; and to propose good practice guidelines listing the key points of a successful campaign. The results obtained indicate that the percentage of successful profit-making campaigns is no higher than that for charitable ones, and that compliance with the key points in the proposed good practice guidelines is more likely to result in a successful crowdfunding campaign.