In this paper we intend to analyse the problems created by industrial development and the concentration of the population in the main industrial cities. The pollution created by industrial establishments, as well as the insufficient supply of water in good conditions and the lack of sewage systems, created an unhealthy urban environment that favoured the emergence of diseases and did not correspond to the hygienist ideas of the time. Thus, the idea of progress and urban wellbeing was associated with the introduction of modern infrastructures that could solve these problems. On the other hand, the development of sciences such as chemistry or medicine allowed to better understand the reasons for the epidemics and to realize that there could only be good public health if the problems that affected individual health were solved. In the process of urban modernization and the resolution of health problems affecting cities, doctors, chemists and engineers played a decisive role with their scientific knowledge and technical skills. Their action also benefited from their contacts abroad, and from the solutions to urban problems adopted in other countries. Political-administrative institutions also tried to take measures to eliminate or reduce the risk of disease or pollution, in order to create urban spaces in conformity with the standards of the more developed cities. The ideas for the modernization of cities were also linked to the introduction of gas and electricity in public lighting, as well as the ideas of better planning of urban spaces and the creation of more beautiful and pleasant cities, with more gardens and green areas. Similarly, the introduction of electrical transportation favoured the population's mobility in urban space, which gradually increased. The introduction of basic sanitation and energy networks had an influence on living space, of course, although at first this alteration was particularly felt in the most important cities and the higher social strata. In this text we intend to analyse some of ...
Industrial exhibitions, going back to the second half of the 18th century, were always considered an important means of promoting the industrial development of countries and diffusing technical and industrial progress. After London organized the first Universal Exhibition, in 1851, this event category gained an international character. These exhibitions were also an opportunity to present new materials and building techniques. The Universal Exhibition was visited by a very diverse public from politicians and engineers to workers.
From the mid-19th century on, Universal Exhibitions were privileged spaces for the dissemination of progress in science, technology, and industry, at the international level. For this reason - and in line with other countries - in Portugal the government, the institutions offering technical education and the societies connected with the industry, all provided funds to some workers' representatives, from several different industries, so that they could visit the Universal Exhibitions to study the progresses of technology and industry, presented at those events by various countries. In return, these workers were expected to report on the research they had done during their visits. They were expected to refer the improvements which, in their view, should be introduced in Portugal, in the industrial branches they represented. The main goal of this paper is to analyse some examples of study trips to the Universal Exhibitions taken by Portuguese workers, addressing the way in which the reports submitted by these industrial workers described the exhibitions, and the industries and industrial objects displayed by various countries, as well as the technical innovations and industrial processes shown on those occasions.
Quelle place pour les ingénieurs dans l'industrie ? Une réflexion sur le cas du Portugal, XIXe –XXe siècles Pareillement à d'autres pays, les rapports entre les ingénieurs et l'industrie au Portugal se sont complexifiés et diversifiés tout au long du XIXe siècle. Cependant au XIXe siècle, l'implication des ingénieurs dans le développement industriel du pays se révèle cruciale, que ce soit par les études techniques réalisées dans les diverses branches de l'industrie, par les projets de construction des bâtiments industriels, ou par le transfert et l'application des technologies. La réalisation des projets pour l'exploitation industrielle des ressources naturelles du pays, en particulier ceux qui concernent les différentes énergies ou les ressources minières, est également une filière par laquelle les ingénieurs sont intervenus dans l'industrie. D'autre part, au XIXe siècle, quelques chimistes développent une activité industrielle très proche de ce que nous appellerions aujourd'hui l'ingénierie chimique. L'intervention des ingénieurs au sein des institutions politico-administratives et des sociétés de promotion de l'industrie était tout aussi considérable. Dans ce texte nous abordons des exemples qui illustrent la diversité des relations entre les ingénieurs et l'industrie dans le contexte portugais, pour essayer de clarifier le rôle que ce groupe professionnel a joué dans le développement industriel du pays, alors qu'on a le plus souvent sous-estimé son importance. --- What role for engineers in the industry? A reflection on the case of Portugal, 19th and 20th centuries Similarly to other countries, the relationship between engineers and industry in Portugal became more complex and diversified throughout the nineteenth century. However, in the nineteenth century, the involvement of engineers in the country's industrial development became crucial, whether through technical studies in various branches of industry, or by the construction projects of industrial buildings, or even by the transfer and the application of technology. The projects for the industrial exploitation of natural resources of the country, especially those concerning the different energy or mineral resources, were also a way through which engineers were involved in the industry. Second, in the nineteenth century, some chemists developed an industrial activity very close to what we would call today chemical engineering. The intervention of engineers within the political and administrative institutions as well as in the industrial associations and societies was just as significant. In this text we analyse examples that illustrate the diversity of relationships between engineers and industry in the Portuguese context, to try to clarify the role that this professional group played in the industrial development of the country.
The emerge of gas lighting in Portugal occurred some years later in relation to the other European countries, The situation of political disturbance, which existed in the country during the initial decades of the 19th century , did not raise favorable conditions to implement big investments to modernize the cities. Only in 1834 the Lisbon City Council started promoting city's gas lighting system. However, in spite of emerging from this date on various proposals from nationals and foreigners, it took further twelve years to realize the first contract with a private company – Companhia Lisbonense de Iluminação a Gás. This text analyze the establishment of a gas network in Lisbon.
1-World Exhibitions as a means of highlighting the economic, political and technological power of different countries. 2 - The Exhibition as a means of advancing scientific, technical and industrial progress. 3 - Visits of engineers to the World Exhibitions in the 2nd half of the 19thcentury and the transfer of technology. 4- The attempt to define international procedures in the field of engineering: conferences held in association with World Exhibitions.
Os estudos mais recentes quer de historiadores económicos, quer de historiadores da ciência e da tecnologia, têm feito intervir um número maior de variantes nas relações entre ciência/tecnologia e desenvolvimento económico. A análise deixou de considerar apenas as influências mais ou menos directas entre uma e outra para passar a privilegiar aspectos como a atitude científica, a existência de sociedades vocacionadas para a produção de uma ciência aplicada, a criação de um ambiente cultural mais predisposto para a aplicação de novos conhecimentos e as ligações entre os industriais e os cientistas ou o papel desempenhado pelos homens de ciência no desenvolvimento económico dos países. Nesta forma de abordagem a divulgação dos conhecimentos científicos assume particular importância, pois foi através dela que ciência e a tecnologia passaram da esfera de um mundo restrito para o conjunto da sociedade, influindo na cultura e mentalidade das populações e criando nos políticos, nos empresários e na opinião pública em geral uma maior abertura à produção, transferência e aplicação de novas tecnologias. Neste trabalho procura-se analisar o papel das academias, sociedades e associações na produção e divulgação de conhecimentos científicos e técnicos, a divulgação realizada por meio da imprensa e das conferências científicas e pedagógicas, e a forma como as exposições e os museus associados ao ensino técnico contribuíram para essa divulgação e para a generalização de novos objectos, que os avanços tecnológicos foram colocando à disposição da população. --- The latest research carried out both by economic and scientific historians highlights a larger number of variables in the relationship between science/technology and economic development. The analysis has gone beyond the more or less direct influences between them and focused on issues like the scientific attitude, the existence of societies more suited for the production of an applied science, the development of a cultural environment more inclined to apply the new knowledge, the links between the industrialists and the scientists or the role played by the men of science in the economic growth of the countries. In this approach the dissemination of knowledge plays a major role, since through it science and technology withdrew from the inner circles and merged into the outer world of society, thus influencing culture and mentalities and fostering a more open attitude towards production, transference and application of new technologies on the part of politicians, entrepreneurs and the public opinion at large. The work below aims to discuss the role-played by academies, societies and associations in the production and dissemination of scientific and technological knowledge, as well as its spreading made by the press and the scientific and pedagogical conferences. The extent to which exhibitions and museums associated with the technical learning contributed to that spreading as well as to the generalisation of new tools, which the technological improvements put at the population's disposal, is also examined.
The chemist Sebastião Betâmio de Almeida is an example of the already existing connection between science and economy in the 19th century. Almeida, like some of his contemporaries, followed the ideas of Saint-Simon, trying to create a closer relationship between his teachings at the Industrial Institutes of Porto and Lisbon, and his interventions in the Portuguese activities of agriculture, forestry and industry. He wrote studies about the soda economy and the glass and resin industries. A follower of a scientific base in the national industry, Betâmio de Almeida tried to start publishing the journal Technologia Chimica in 1853, aimed at the industrial community. Recognising his professional quality, the government named him for several commissions, such as a study trip to the Paris Universal Exhibition in 1855. The study of the personal and professional career of this chemist, as a case study, allows us to approach the 19th century Portuguese economy and society, namely in the following aspects: the scientific training that existed in the country; the contacts established between Portuguese scientists and their colleagues in other countries; the way those contacts were established, through internships in foreign countries and study visits favouring the exchange of ideas and technology transfer; the concerns that existed in Portugal related to the popularization of scientific and technological progress; the different ways scientists put their knowledge and experience to the service of agriculture, forest and industry development; and the intervention of these men in state structures.
Com instauração da democracia em Portugal, em 1974, o poder local assumiu a tarefa de fazer chegar às populações o saneamento básico, a água canalizada e a eletricidade que em muitas localidades do país ainda escasseavam. Na cidade de Évora diversas habitações do Centro Histórico e dos bairros limítrofes careciam também de algumas destas infraestruturas. Por outro lado, tornava-se percetível que os residentes da cidade antiga tendiam a deslocar-se para os novos bairros onde encontravam melhores condições de habitabilidade e um edificado menos degradado. Foi neste contexto que o executivo camarário começou a «trabalhar um plano de recuperação da cidade, conhecido pelo Programa de Recuperação do Centro Histórico, cuja finalidade principal [era] defender e melhorar o património cultural e arquitectónico da Évora antiga», segundo o publicado no jornal Diário Popular em 23 de julho de 1981. O desenvolvimento do projeto culminou na inscrição do Centro Histórico de Évora na lista do Património Mundial da UNESCO, em 26 de novembro de 1986. Entre 1981 e 1986 a Câmara Municipal de Évora desenvolveu um conjunto de iniciativas e de experiências que ficaram documentadas em múltiplas notícias e artigos divulgados em jornais e revistas. Com base na análise destes documentos, o presente estudo questiona o processo eborense sobre a importância atribuída à comunicação, à divulgação e ao o envolvimento das populações, na dinâmica e nas ações promovidas pelo executivo camarário com vista ao reconhecimento do valor universal do Centro Histórico de Évora. / After the establishment of democracy in Portugal, in 1974, local government has taken on the task of bringing basic sanitation, piped water and electricity to the populations in manylocalities of the country. In the city of Évora, severalhouses of the Historic Center and neighboring districts requiredsome of these infrastructures. Therefore, itbecame apparent that the residents of the old city tended to move to new neighborhoods, wheretheycouldfindbetterhousing conditions and lessdegraded buildings. It was in thiscontextthat the city councilbegan to "work out a plan for the recovery of the city, known as the Historic Center Recovery Program, which the main purposeis [was] to defend and improve the cultural and architectural heritage of the ancient Évora", (DiárioPopular, 23 July,1981, p.4). The development of the projectculminated in the inscription of the Historic Center of Évora in the list of the UNESCO World Heritage,on November 26, 1986. Between 1981 and 1986, Évora city councildeveloped a set of initiatives and experiencesthat have been documented in several news and articles published in newspapers and magazines. Based on the analysis of these documents, ourpaper examines the process of communication, dissemination, and the popularinvolvement in the dynamics and initiatives promoted by the city council, in order to recognize the universal value of the Historic Centre of Évora./ Con la instauración de la democracia en Portugal en 1974 los gobiernos locales comenzaron a tener competencias en infraestructuras, motivo por el que se iniciaron trabajos de instalación de saneamiento, abastecimiento y electricidad en numerosas áreas del país en las que todavía aquellas eran escasas. En la ciudad de Évora diversas viviendas del centro histórico y de los barrios limítrofes carecían de algunas de estas infraestructuras. Además, se percibía que los residentes de la ciudad antigua tendían a desplazarse hacia los nuevos barrios donde encontraban mejores condiciones de habitabilidad y edificios menos degradados. En este contexto, el municipio comenzó a «trabajar en un plan de recuperación de la ciudad, conocido como "Programa de Recuperación del Centro Histórico", cuya finalidad principal era defender y mejorar el patrimonio cultural y arquitectónico de la Évora antigua (Diario Popular, 23 de julio de 1981). El desarrollo de este proyecto culminó con la inscripción del centro histórico de Évora en la lista del Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO, el 26 de noviembre de 1986. Entre 1981 y 1986 el Ayuntamiento de Évora desarrolló un conjunto de iniciativas y de experiencias que quedaron documentadas en múltiples noticias y artículos divulgados en periódicos y revistas. Con base al análisis de estos documentos, el presente estudio cuestiona la importancia de la comunicación, divulgación e implicación de la sociedad en las acciones promovidas por el Ayuntamiento de Évora con el objetivo de que se reconociera el valor universal del Centro Histórico de Évora.
Desde a sua génese, as exposições nacionais, internacionais ou universais integraram as artes nas suas estratégias de promoção e divulgação. Esta situação verificou-se também com a Exposição Ibero-americana de Sevilha, que se propunha reunir os dois países ibéricos e as nações surgidas das suas antigas colónias no continente americano num mesmo evento expositivo. Para a cidade de Sevilha a Exposição proporcionou uma reconfiguração urbanística e a afirmação da arquitetura andaluza. Para Portugal foi uma oportunidade para a divulgação do país nos circuitos do turismo internacional, em particular nos itinerários transatlânticos. A campanha de promoção nacional mobilizou o Ministério do Interior, o Conselho Nacional de Turismo e o Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros. A nível regional, vários Municípios e Comissões de Iniciativa promoveram iniciativas de valorização das suas cidades e territórios. Para a participação na exposição e para a campanha de promoção do país, o governo português recorreu a artistas de várias áreas, como foi o caso de Almada Negreiros, à época um jovem artista, a quem encomendou o cartaz oficial da participação portuguesa na Exposição. Por seu lado, o Pavilhão de Portugal foi concebido pelos irmãos arquitetos Rebelo de Andrade, num estilo historicista que evocava períodos gloriosos da história do país. E o Guia Oficial da Exposição Portuguesa em Sevilha incluía numerosas fotografias, que representavam não só os monumentos mais emblemáticos dos centros urbanos, mas também as praias e estâncias termais para onde se pretendia atrair os turistas. No plano regional, a expectativa das vantagens económicas do turismo deu origem a encomendas a jornalistas, fotógrafos, pintores, escritores e até mesmo realizadores. A tipicidade das gentes portuguesas, os usos e costumes, a beleza das paisagens, a história e os monumentos das cidades e vilas eram as temáticas dominantes dos trabalhos efetuados. O objetivo da comunicação é explicar de que modo as artes (arquitetura, pintura, fotografia, cinema, literatura, nomeadamente) foram centrais para a propaganda de Portugal durante a Exposição Ibero-americana de Sevilha em 1929. / Since its origin that national, international or universal exhibitions sought out to integrate the arts in its promotion and diffusion. This strategy was followed in the Ibero- American Exhibition in Seville, which had the purpose to bring together Spain and Portugal and the Nations that had arisen from their former colonies in the Americas in the same exhibition. For the city of Seville the exhibition was an opportunity for an urban redesign and the affirmation of Andalusian architecture. For Portugal the exhibition was an opportunity for the dissemination of the country in international tourism circuits, in particular in transatlantic routes. The campaign to promote Portugal mobilized the Ministry of the Interior, the National Council of tourism and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. At the regional level, several municipalities and Initiative Committees promoted valuation iniciatives of their cities and territories. For the participation in the exhibition and to the country's promotion campaign, the Portuguese Government appealed to artists from different areas, as was the case of Almada Negreiros, then a young artist, to whom was commissioned the official poster of the Portuguese participation in the exhibition. The Portugal Pavilion was designed by the architect brothers Rebelo de Andrade, in a historicist style evoking glorious periods of the country's history. And the official guide of the exhibition in Seville included numerous photographs, representing not only the most emblematic monuments of the city centers, but also how beaches and along resorts to where one intended to attract tourists. At a regional level, the expectation of the economic benefits of tourism gave rise to order works to reporters, photographers, painters, writers and even filmmakers. The typicality of the Portuguese people, the uses and customs, the beauty of the landscapes, the history and monuments of the cities and towns were the dominant themes of the work performed. The objective of the communication is to explain how the Arts (architecture, painting, photography, cinema, literature, in particular) were central to the propaganda of Portugal during the Ibero-American Exhibition in Seville in 1929.
En 1851 s'est établi au Portugal un nouveau régime politique – la "Régénération". Ce nouveau régime politique insistait sur l'importance des travaux publics pour la modernisation de l´économie et sur les liens étroits qui unissent l´idée de progrès et les objets et systèmes techniques. Or, les structures administratives dans le Portugal de l'époque ne correspondaient pas à cette vision de l'avenir du pays. D'où la création de nouveaux ministères, tel le ministère des Travaux publics, du commerce et de l'industrie (1852), au sein duquel se sont concentrés tous les services concernant les travaux publics et les activités économiques. Dans ce texte, nous analysons le rôle joué par les ingénieurs dans le ministère des Travaux publics, du commerce et de l'industrie (cité désormais par son sigle: Ministério das Obras Públicas, Comércio e Indústria, MOPCI), notamment au sein du Conseil des travaux publics, ainsi que le processus d'affirmation du génie civil dans ce ministère. Nous analysons aussi les liens tissés entre le Corps du génie civil du MOPCI et l'Association des ingénieurs civils portugais, créée en 1869. --- In 1851 a new political regime was born in Portugal. The Regeneração (Regeneration) had a strong technologically driven agenda, built on the belief that progress depended mostly on public works (e.g. railways, roads, harbours). In order to fulfil these promises of economic development, the Regeneração Cabinet created a new ministry in 1852, suggestively named the Ministry of Public Works, Commerce and Industry (MOPCI). Engineers played a crucial role in the life of this government department, as their technical expertise was at the heart of the all activity of the ministry. From its very beginning, the MOPCI allowed engineers to assert their role as both artisans and leaders of the renewed Portugal. Although at first these engineers had mostly a military training, soon they were able to extend their expertise to civil works, by going abroad and enrolling in prestigious courses at, for instance, the École des Ponts et Chaussées. The aim of this article is to unveil the trajectory of this professional group as civil servants working at the MOPCI, mostly concerning their gradual spread through different organizational levels of the ministry.
The building of water supply and lighting infrastructures - a fundamental factor in the urban modernisation process - was a common subject in Portuguese political rhetoric in the first half of the 20th century. Given that during that time Portugal went form a liberal regime (the First Republic) to authoritarian rule (the New State), the aims of this paper are to: - review the arguments, which were used by both regimes to appropriate the discourse on infrastructures;~ - identify the technical and technological options and the business models employed to build and manage the networks; - establish the rate at which they were implemented. The paper also attempts to fit the Portuguese case into the models and innovation processes followed in other countries.
The creation of a well-defined professional consciousness relies largely on its corpus of knowledge. Only those who receive a specific training are able to deal with the theoretical and practical questions of a specific professional field. Therefore schools play a decisive role in shaping the profile required for each profession. In Portugal the teaching of engineering remained until quite late within a military frame. This situation was strongly debated in the Cortes (the Parliament), in scientific societies, in professional associations and by the teachers themselves. The problem had to be understood by examining the Portuguese economy, still based on archaic structures, mainly agricultural. The close relationship between technical teaching, industry and modernity became, thus, a main issue during the nineteenth century. How to teach the Portuguese engineers? Which subjects should they learn? Should they be concerned mostly with theoretical questions or should they pay more attention to practical matters? Being a peripheral country Portugal soon realized that he had to choose between taking pattern from France or from England. Although the English engineer was the living symbol of a successful model, the architect of the most industrialised country, the Portuguese economy was far from resembling the English one. The weak Portuguese industry had no place for engineers. However they proved to be very useful when, by 1850, the Portuguese Government decided to build the railway. The Portuguese engineer became mainly a civil servant ranked by his academic training The French École des Ponts et Chaussées was its main reference. In this text we intend to analyse some of the issues concerning the Portuguese engineering teaching, mainly by discussing its methodological and epistemological references, the controversies that surround it and the European routes of some of our engineers
Alfredo Bensaúde was a revolutionary of his time in the training in engineering. He was a visionary of progress and was aware of the need to connect the education with technological innovation, institutional reforms, and economic growth. The establishment of the Republic in 1910 created a favourable context to reform and innovate the previous education structures. In 25 of May of 1911, the new government established a new Decree-law where it states the need to reorganise all public instruction highlighting that our delay comes only from the insufficiency of our technical teaching industrial schools are flawed in their installations, equipment and pedagogical standards. In 1911, when the Instituto Superior Técnico (Technical Institute) was created Alfredo Bensaúde was chosen as director. The new project was based on an essential premise: the existence of administrative autonomy, giving the Director the necessary power to implement the pedagogical program without intermediaries or constraints. The new school invested in theoretical-practical teaching where workshops and laboratories, as well as the library, played an essential role in the educational project. The Instituto Superior Técnico intends to establish a frontier between the former Industrial Institutes and Polytechnic Schools and new teaching of engineering, believing that education and science should be the basis of the growth of the economy in the 20th-century.
Le chapitre analyse la mise en place des systèmes d'enseignement technique dans quatre empires situés aux marges de l'Europe, notamment, le Portugal, l'Espagne, la Russie et l'Empire ottoman. Les premières tentatives de mise en comparaison ont révélé des similitudes dans la logique du développement des systèmes d'enseignement technique et dans l'institutionnalisation de la production et circulation des connaissances techniques dans les quatre pays en question. Tous ont lancé les réformes d'enseignement dans le cadre des politiques de modernisation, souvent perçues en termes de rattrapage vis-à-vis de leurs voisins. Tous ont visé d'entrée la promotion des institutions, des experts et des savoirs susceptibles d'assurer la meilleure emprise du territoire et sa défense face à l'ennemi extérieur. Tous ont privilégié les structures d'État et tous ont mis du temps à promouvoir les domaines se développant en dehors de son contrôle direct (experts pour l'industrie privée, etc.). Enfin, pour atteindre ces objectifs, tous ont eu recours aux politiques de transfert et de circulation des savoirs en mobilisant à leur profit un ensemble de ressources (hommes, objets, produits ; textes, images, échantillons ; recettes et technologies ; prototypes et modèles de référence. . .). En revanche, cette première tentative de comparaison a soulevé aussi des questions qui concernent à la fois les dimensions spatiale et temporelle de l'étude mais aussi ses dimensions locale et globale. On observe, notamment, des différences dans l'organisation spatiale, géographique de ces systèmes de formation et de recherche, et d'importants décalages dans le temps de leur lancement que seule une analyse rapprochée des conditions locales et du contexte international peut aider à élucider.
