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PurposeThe constructs of relativism and absolutism have a significant role to play in the development of ethical theory; however, they are commonly simplified in their depictions and are philosophically more complex than we give them credit for. The purpose of this paper is to undertake an in‐depth examination of ethical relativity and ethical absolutism before concluding with a discussion of which research implications warrant further investigation.Design/methodology/approachA descriptive, historical, anthological approach has been taken.FindingsEthical relativism is regrettably subject to a proliferation of related terminology and, in many instances with different meanings ascribed to similar terms. In addition, ethical relativity appears to attract different research perspectives that are heavily dependent on their academic origins. A clear distinction needs to be made between ethical and situational relativity. It is suggested that relativism is present in the process of moral justification and that ethical relativism should be analyzed from three levels: the individual level, the role and group level, and the cultural levels. The over‐riding objection to ethical relativism rests on the consequences of accepting relativism, which undermines the existence and strength of global moral standards and the inherent positioning of ethical absolutism. Absolutism does not deny the existence of multiple moral practices evident around the world, but proposes that variations in ethical actions could still be rooted in common universal moral standards based on our requirements as human beings and the necessities of long‐term survival.Research limitations/implicationsThe ensuing discussions of relativism and absolutism open up a rich vein of research opportunities and suggest caution is required in regard to research methodologies. From a methodological perspective, care needs to be taken. For example, using hypothetical ethical dilemmas that are often unrelated to a specific industry or cultural setting has resulted in many researchers observing situational relativity rather than true ethical relativity.Originality/valueThis paper specifically examines whether there are differences in underlying and basic moral standards even though similarities in ethical behaviour have been determined, or whether differing ethical actions could, as the absolutists believe, originate from common universal standards despite apparent differences in perceptions and actions across cultures.

This e-book brings together six papers around the topic of business ethics. In addition to examining the contrasting dimensions of ethical absolutism and ethical relativism which is most relevant in international business it is hoped that from this work further attention is given to the discussion of durability of ethical values and principles in business practices in the domestic marketplace, and in society at large

Discusses research in the literature about the expatriate manager
as a unit of resource. The research to date has largely addressed
concerns for the high failure rate and costs of expatriate assignments,
suggestions for improving methods of personnel selection; comparative
studies of expatriate and local managers; and recommendations for
improving expatriate success. Notes that rarely are the problems of
expatriate personnel addressed collectively, particularly with a focus
on Asia. Discusses effectiveness of expatriate assignments within the
totality of four distinctive phases: selection; preparation;
acculturation; and repatriation. Provides a valuable foundation for
providing organizational recommendations to enhance the success of
future expatriate placements.

PurposeThere is a small but growing body of empirical research examining benefits of corporate social responsibility (CSR) beyond traditional, accounting‐based financial benefits. To extend this body of research in contexts outside of Europe and the USA, the purpose of the present paper is to empirically examine three potential benefits of demonstrating CSR: reduced employee turnover; increased customer satisfaction; and improved reputation.Design/methodology/approachThe paper collected data on latent constructs through a survey of chief executive officers across a spectrum of industries in Australia. Confirmatory factor analysis assessed psychometric properties of the constructs, while regression analysis was used to examine posited hypotheses.FindingsThe findings suggest that firms engaging in CSR can benefit in ways beyond a pure bottom‐line outcome. First, due to exhibited fairness, socially responsive activities appear to be a means to reduce employee turnover. Second, by meeting justice needs of customers, CSR is likely to increase customer satisfaction. Lastly, CSR activities provide visible signals from which stakeholders infer various positive characteristics of firms, thus creating an avenue to increase overall firm reputation.Practical implicationsFirms can choose to do nothing with respect to their social responsibilities to doing much. While proactively engaging in CSR is not without opportunity cost, the results of this paper suggest executives should not dismiss CSR altogether.Originality/valueValue from this paper is derived in three ways: relying on non‐financial dependent variables, it supplements limited CSR research conducted in this stream; the data and implications drawn come from Australia, thereby adding needed international insight into the benefits of CSR; and the paper supplements financial‐driven theories used in CSR research by focusing on employee justice perceptions, equity, and signaling theories.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the body of cross‐disciplinary literature on corporate social responsibility (CSR), organizational structure, and organizational culture. The author suggests that the issue of social responsibility is a phenomenon both external and internal to organizations, as it lies on the cusp of organizational culture and social expectations.Design/methodology/approachThe paper bridges classical sociological thought and contemporary views on CSR to develop an argument about the deviant nature of CSR. It highlights the theoretical challenges to establish socially responsible behaviors of organization as a mainstream norm.FindingsThe paper suggests that CSR should be perceived within the context of the existing social norms and understood as an outcome of shared set of organizational norms and values. The review of existing theories of CSR is followed by a discussion of whether CSR is a deviant or a normative phenomenon.Originality/valueThe paper presents CSR as a deviant behavior and argues that in order for it to become a common organizational practice, ideas of socially responsible behaviors should be incorporated into the existing set of social expectations.

PurposeCorporate codes of conduct originated around 1900 in the USA gaining further momentum in the 1950s in relation to anti‐trust legislation. Subsequently, the adoption of codes of ethics has spread throughout the world and they now feature extensively in many organisations. The literature relating to codes of ethics, therefore, spans many decades and is undoubtedly comprehensive. The purpose of the paper is to provide an appropriate anthology of codes of ethics.Design/methodology/approachA descriptive, historical, anthological approach has been taken.FindingsThis paper examines the motivations for the adoption of codes of ethics, which naturally also includes international codes, their frequency of use and content. Codes are also not without critique and it is appropriate to highlight the criticisms of codes, to provide an assessment of their potential effectiveness, the issues surrounding implementation and enforcement and the relationship to organisational culture and leadership.Research limitations/implicationsAs noted, the literature on codes of conduct is extensive and while effort has been made to capture the key themes the review is not necessarily exhaustive.Originality/valueThe literature is characterised by the means of institutionalising ethics in organisations and the paper concludes with a summative reflection on the key dimensions that appear to be paramount for improving the efficacy of codes of conduct.

PurposeIncreasing pressure to enhance research coupled with a desire for a broadening of academic input, are prompting greater levels of collaboration. Research collaboration can generate notable benefits but can also pose a variety of challenges. The purpose of this paper is to explore the reasons, facilitators, benefits and challenges of academic collaboration. It also provides suggestions to manage identifiable risks and enhance team dynamics.Design/methodology/approachThis is a conceptual paper exploring prior literature in relation to the contentious points of research collaboration, particularly in regard to authorship attribution.FindingsThe authors present two checklists that researchers can utilise to ensure the successful completion of collaborative projects. The checklists incorporate the main factors required for effective collaborative work and research, and form a foundation for discussion among team members.Originality/valueThe paper draws upon experiences, observations, academic literature and protocols, and provides strategies and recommendations to enhance collaboration and authorship attribution. The two checklists presented in the paper are value‐adding for team members.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to provide a general review of international efforts to hold transnational corporations (TNCs) responsible for human rights. It tracks the evolution of international conventions related to TNCs and human rights and assesses their effectiveness.Design/methodology/approachThe paper describes and analyzes efforts over the last four decades by the United Nations (UN), the Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development, the International Labour Organization and non‐governmental groups to provide guidelines and encourage TNCs to aspire to international standards in human rights.FindingsThe early attempts to regulate TNCs internationally lacked any form of the robust compulsion, systemic monitoring and effective enforcement mechanisms necessary to deal with the magnitude of the global investment arena. However, during the last decade, there has been explicit recognition on the part of the UN that action is necessary and the most recent convention emanating from the UN, the Norms, may evolve into a binding instrument on TNCs.Originality/valueThis paper, by mapping the development of global ethical conventions up to the UN Norms on the responsibilities for TNCs and other business enterprises with regards to human rights, informs corporate officers of the state of global discussions on this issue and lays the groundwork for further scholarly analysis of the Norms in the future.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to offer an interdisciplinary review of the existing research on ethical behavior – informed by philosophical theories, social sciences, and applied business research – and identifies the merits and limitations of the extant theories, including the applicability of prescriptive frameworks and models to business practice.Design/methodology/approachFollowing the review, the paper advances a descriptive model of ethical decision‐making criteria that elucidates how individual, organizational, and environmental variables interact to influence attitude formation across critical components of an ethical issue.FindingsThe model advanced expands upon other existing frameworks and provides a comprehensive and simultaneous assessment of the interplay between individual‐level variables (e.g. demographic variables, position in the organisation), the structure and climate of the organisation in which the decisions are made, and the social and political features of the business environment.Practical implicationsThe proposed model can be used as a training tool and it holds several advantages over the extant alternatives, namely versatility (it is adaptable to the specific organizational context in which respondents are required to conceptualize the dilemma and generate courses of action), and scope (the model allows for the simultaneous assessment of a myriad of cross‐level variables).Originality/valueThe paper offers a comprehensive decision‐making model that can be used to examine ethical decisions in business settings, to investigate potential differences in decision‐making accuracy and ethical reasoning between groups and individuals, and to examine the impact of changing ethical climates in organizational strategy.

PurposeThis paper aims to describe the extent to which corporate organizations in Germany and in New Zealand have included sustainability practices as part of their strategic planning process.Design/methodology/approachCurrent literature is reviewed to make a case for sustainability to be a driver behind corporate decision making and long‐term performance. The results of surveys of several hundred firms in both Germany and New Zealand, countries with a publicly stated commitment to sustainability, are reviewed to compare the adoption rates of sustainability practices.FindingsThere is a significant difference between what firms do and what their managers think is important. Managers largely consider sustainability practices an important factor for their future careers, while firms to a large extent do not include sustainability as part of their strategic or operational planning process.Research limitations/implicationsThe International Sustainability Acceptance Measurement (ISAM) collects data in several countries through local‐language versions of the same online survey tool (www.worldreply.com). The findings in this report are specific only to New Zealand and Germany.Practical implicationsThe paper points academics, corporate executives and sustainability fanatics to an alarming inconsistency between what is publicly reported as commitment to sustainability and what is practically achieved.Originality/valueThis paper adds value to the discussion of how sustainability practices have migrated into the operation of firms.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to present an analysis of media representation of business ethics within 62 international newspapers to explore the longitudinal and contextual evolution of business ethics and associated terminology. Levels of coverage and contextual analysis of the content of the articles are used as surrogate measures of the penetration of business ethics concepts into society.Design/methodology/approachThis paper uses a text mining application based on two samples of data: analysis of 62 national newspapers in 21 countries from 1990 to 2008; analysis of the content of two samples of articles containing the term business ethics (comprised of 100 newspaper articles spread over an 18‐year period from a sample of US and UK newspapers).FindingsThe paper demonstrates increased coverage of sustainability topics within the media over the last 18 years associated with events such as the Rio Summit. Whilst some peaks are associated with business ethics scandals, the overall coverage remains steady. There is little apparent use in the media of concepts such as corporate citizenship. The academic community and company ethical codes appear to adopt a wider definition of business ethics more akin to that associated with sustainability, in comparison with the focus taken by the media, especially in the USA. Coverage demonstrates clear regional bias and contextual analysis of the articles in the UK and USA also shows interesting parallels and divergences in the media representation of business ethics.Originality/valueA promising avenue to explore how the evolution of sustainability issues including business ethics can be tracked within a societal context.