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The father–son relationship between Charles the Bald and his eldest son Louis the Stammerer is generally understood as one of hostility and distrust. This article takes several episodes from the final decades of Charles the Bald's reign to question this, re-examining how royal Carolingian fathers and royal Carolingian sons could take steps to overcome previous conflicts and arguing that political ties within the royal family were more robust, and consequently of different significance for our understanding of Carolingian politics, than is usually understood.

In August 923, Charles the Simple was imprisoned by Count Heribert II of Vermandois, spending the rest of his life in prison. The six years between his imprisonment and his death, however, have never been the focus of a sustained study: Charles usually disappears into a jail cell and out of history. This article uses the difficult source material for West Frankish history in the early and mid-920s to examine the resilience of Carolingian kingship. To retain their position, this article argues, the regimes seeking to replace Charles had to navigate a confusing political environment in which there were no ready-made paths to consensus about what to do with an imprisoned king.

In August 923, Charles the Simple was imprisoned by Count Heribert II of Vermandois, spending the rest of his life in prison. The six years between his imprisonment and his death, however, have never been the focus of a sustained study: Charles usually disappears into a jail cell and out of history. This article uses the difficult source material for West Frankish history in the early and mid-920s to examine the resilience of Carolingian kingship,. To retain their position, this article argues, the regimes seeking to replace Charles had to navigate a confusing political environment in which there were no ready-made paths to consensus about what to do with an imprisoned king. ; In August 923, Charles the Simple was imprisoned by Count Heribert II of Vermandois, spending the rest of his life in prison. The six years between his imprisonment and his death, however, have never been the focus of a sustained study: Charles usually disappears into a jail cell and out of history. This article uses the difficult source material for West Frankish history in the early and mid-920s to examine the resilience of Carolingian kingship,. To retain their position, this article argues, the regimes seeking to replace Charles had to navigate a confusing political environment in which there were no ready-made paths to consensus about what to do with an imprisoned king.

This is the final version of the article. It was first published by Wiley at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/emed.12106/abstract?campaign=woletoc ; By the end of the reign of its third duke, Richard I, called 'the Fearless', in 996, Normandy had overcome the crises which had beset it in the middle of the century. Much of this came from the coherence of its ruling group, which expressed itself partly in terms of 'Norman' identity. This article uses Dudo's history of the dukes and Richard's charters to argue that 'Norman' as a political identity was a deliberate creation of the court of Richard I in the 960s, following the perceived failure of his and his father's policies of assimilation into Frankish culture. ; This work was supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council through grant [AH/K502959/1].