Las Confederaciones Hidrográficas son el resultado de la combinación de una corriente de pensamiento autóctona: el regeneracionismo y, del creciente intervencionismo económico del Estado. La idea de aprovechar los recursos hídricos de un modo integral tomando como base la cuenca hidrográfica de un gran río será la gran aportación española al control de las aguas. Estos organismos incorporaron desde el principio la participación de los usuarios en la toma de decisiones, dentro de un marco de relativa autonomía con respecto al Estado que las había creado. En la actualidad las Confederaciones son las encargadas de gestionar el dominio público hidráulico y de regular el llamado "mercado del agua", así como velar por la cantidad y calidad de las aguas. ; The "Hydrographic Confederations" are the result of the combination of a native original thought, "Regeneracionismo" and growing public intervention. The main Spanish contribution to water control systems is taken from the idea of exploiting globally all water resources from a big river basin. From the start the institutions included the users in the decision making procedures. Even though the institutions were created by the government they have remained autonomous. The "Confederations" are, at present, in charge of managing all public waterways and surrounding areas. They also regulate the "mercado del agua": (water market) and take care of the amount and quality of water.
La adecuación del trasvase Tajo-Segura a los criterios generales que sirven de base a la legislación que regula las transferencias de agua, el análisis de la política tarifaria y el balance económico de su gestión entre 1979 y 1995 son los principales temas que se abordan en este artículo. El modelo de explotación del Acueducto Tajo-Segura significó una ruptura en el sistema de financiación de las obras hidráulicas por el Estado, se perseguía que los usuarios fuesen los que corriesen con las inversiones y con los gastos de funcionamiento, buscando la autosuficiencia, al tiempo que la obtención de recursos adicionales para el cumplimiento de las obligaciones compensatorias con la cuenca cedente. La explotación del ATS y sus resultados económicos se han visto condicionados por la planificación de las obras y por la infrautilización que se ha venido haciendo de las mismas, lo que ha repercutido en un encarecimiento del agua conducida y ha servido para cuestionar la rentabilidad del trasvase. ; The main aims of this paper are the study of the degree of correspondence of the Tajo-Segura hydraulic transfer (TST) to the general criteria that are in the base of the legislation about water transfers, the analysis of tax policy and the economic imbalance of the TST management between 1979 and 1995. The exploitation model of TST meant a breakdown in the financing system of hydraulic works by the State. The aim was the customers to cover investments and ordinary expenses in a search for economic autonomy. At the same time one of the goals was to produce enough surpluses to economically compensate the institution that owned the transferred water originally. The exploitation of TST and its economic results have been conditioned by the planning of the works and by the underemployment that the built facilities have suffered, this factors leading to the rise of the price of transferred water and the questioning of TST economic results.
The 1988 Constitution of Brazil used the expression "water resources", not translating its economic use, but as being for the general enjoyment of the collectivity, the populace. Debates on issues related to underground water availability as another source of the water supply have raised major concerns about the quantity, quality and depletion of this resource. Even using this tuning fork, this hydrogeological body of water remains in a situation of scarcity, in the same way as the superficial waters, because the knowledge of the subject is still hindered. In Brazil, for example, the distribution of water is far from homogeneous, although there is a government effort to protect this reservoir. The greatest challenge in terms of water resources conservation lies in the lack of effective mechanisms to control, protect and use these natural resources without impeding the economic growth of the country. On the other hand, the concept of there being a water crisis goes beyond scarcity, resulting from a combination of governance failures, environmental preservation, sustainability issues and disparity in access to water. While the human right to water requires the use of this sensitive and exhaustible resource, there is an obligation for states to ensure there is secure access and secure storage, and there is a need for a more active role of sustainability to be present in society at large; however, the underground water use and management reiterate the same flaws that lead to surface water degradation. In addition, the deliberate use of groundwater requires rational actions, as resource allocation is as important in equity, which is often crucial in governance decisions. In order to understand groundwater policies, it is imperative to understand the structure and actual sequence of events by analyzing the factors or attributes that make groundwater management successful in some regions, but not others.
El tema de la depuración y la reutilización de las aguas es de gran trascendencia, sobre todo en los espacios donde la escasez de recursos convencionales es un problema estructural, como es el caso de España. El potencial que presenta este recurso no convencional, estratégico en las situaciones de déficit, es incuestionable; máxime si se tiene en cuenta en el marco de la planificación y bajo el supuesto de un modelo de explotación hídrica que tenga como objetivo prioritario la conservación, protección y mejora de la calidad del agua, y la utilización sostenible y eficiente de los recursos naturales. En el trabajo se pone de manifiesto cómo depuración y reutilización van ligadas, ya que la reutilización de aguas residuales está asociada a una regeneración previa, y son dos herramientas esenciales del modelo ambiental del agua, tal como lo preconiza la normativa comunitaria. El ingreso de España en las instituciones europeas ha sido un revulsivo en los temas ambientales, por cuanto ha supuesto la exigencia de adaptar al país a la normativa europea, mucho más exigente. El esfuerzo realizado ha sido importante, pero todavía estamos lejos de cumplir con todos los requerimientos de Europa. ; The issue of wastewater treatment and the reuse of water is of great importance, especially in areas where the shortage of conventional resources is a structural problem, as it is in the case of Spain. The likelihood that this unconventional, strategic resource would become scarce is unquestionable, particularly in cases where water planning and exploitation systems prioritize the preservation, protection and improvement of water quality, as well as the sustainable and efficient use of natural resources. This paper shows how wastewater treatment and reuse are linked, as the reuse of wastewater is associated with a previous regeneration, and both of them are essential tools for maximizing environmental outcomes, as called for in the European Union Directives. ; Este trabajo ha sido financiado en parte por la Fundación Séneca-Agencia de la Ciencia y la Tecnología, con cargo al Proyecto "El papel de los mercados del agua en la gestión integrada de los recursos hídricos en las cuencas deficitarias" (Ref. 19325/PI/15).
El sistema Vinalopó-Alacantí en la provincia de Alicante es un espacio caracterizado por la escasez de recursos hídricos y por un gran desarrollo de las aguas subterráneas. Estas aguas han permitido el abastecimiento de buena parte de los municipios de la provincia y de una agricultura muy avanzada, caracterizada por su eficiencia y productividad. Con el objeto de paliar los graves problemas de sobreexplotación de las aguas subterráneas y restituir el equilibrio hídrico, el Plan Hidrológico de la cuenca del Júcar de 1988 previó la realización de un trasvase desde el Júcar al Vinalopó, éste fue aprobado por unanimidad y fue declarado de interés general por el Estado y sus obras se incluyeron en el Plan Hidrológico Nacional de 2001. La obra del trasvase se inició en 2002, con toma en Cortes de Pallás. En 2005, cuando se había ejecutado más del 52% del presupuesto el Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, de forma unilateral, decidió el cambio de toma y trazado, lo cual tendrá repercusiones sobre la disponibilidad de caudales, la calidad del agua trasvasada, los costes de construcción y explotación, la financiación tanto de la UE como de los particulares, y en los plazos de ejecución y puesta en servicio de la infraestructura. Esta decisión ha despertado una fuerte oposición en los potenciales usuarios, agrupados en la Junta Central de Usuarios del Vinalopó, Alacantí y Consorcio de Aguas de la Marina Baja (JCU). ; The Vinalopó-Alicante System in the province of Alicante, Spain, is a space characterized for the shortage of hydric resources but a great development of underground waters. These underground waters have allowed the water supply in most of the municipalities of the province and, at the same time, the development of a very advanced agriculture, well known for its efficiency and productivity. In order to alleviate the serious problems caused by an excessive exploitation of the underground water and to restore the former hydric balance, the Hydrologic Plan of the Jucar River in 1988, anticipated the necessity of creating an interbasin diversion from the Jucar River to the Vinalopó. This one was approved unanimously and it was declared of general interest by the State and their works were included in the Hydrologic Plan of 2001. The first works of the interbasin diversion began in 2002, with the taking placed in Cortes de Pallás. In 2005, when more than 52% of the budget was already executed, the Ministry of Environment, in a one-sided decision, changed the taking and the layout. This will have direct repercussions on the availability of the volume, the quality of the transferred water and construction and exploitation costs. Funds availability from the EU and from private sources as well as deadlines of the implementation of the infrastructure will be also affected. This decision has provoked a strong opposition in the potential consumers, gathered in the Central Meeting of Users of the Vinalopó, Alacantí and Consorcio de Aguas de la Marina Baja (JCU).
Se analiza la actuación de Riegos de Levante en la margen derecha del río Segura, una empresa de venta de agua creada al calor de la política de la Restauración que generó unas desaforadas expectativas de riego en uno de los espacios de la península Ibérica con mayor déficit hidráulico. El espejismo se produjo con las obras de regulación realizadas en la cuenca del Segura y teniendo como estímulo el auge de la hortofruticultura. Los nuevos regadíos, fruto de una concesión establecida sobre los caudales del Segura en las proximidades de su desembocadura, ocuparon una extensión de alrededor de 4.000 hectáreas y fueron considerados inicialmente como «regadíos abusivos», al tiempo que la empresa que vendía el agua resultó ampliamente cuestionada por los usuarios. Los regantes se constituyeron en comunidad y sus regadíos fueron declarados «tradicionales», lo que supuso, primero, que se les reconociera el derecho preferente a los caudales regulados de la cuenca del Segura y, más tarde y como consecuencia de la insuficiencia de éstos, se les otorgó una asignación del trasvase Tajo-Segura. El regadío creado, no obstante, nunca contó con los recursos hídricos comprometidos, siendo la escasez de éstos particularmente acuciante en los numerosos períodos de sequía registrados, lo que incidió asimismo en una sustancial elevación del precio del agua. ; This paper analyses the activities of Riegos de Levante on the right bank of the River Segura, a water company created in the white heat of Restoration politics that raised exaggerated hopes for the irrigation of one of the areas of greatest hydraulic deficit on the Iberian Peninsula. The delusion came with the water control works carried out in the Segura basin stimulated by the rise in fruit and vegetable growing. The new irrigated land, the result of a concession established on the basis of the volume of flow of the River Segura close to its mouth, occupied approximately 4,000 hectares and was originally regarded as «abusive irrigation», while the company that sold the water was highly questioned by users. The irrigation users formed an organisation and their irrigated lands were declared to be «traditional». This meant, firstly, that their preferential right to the controlled volumes of flow from the Segura catchment area was recognised, and, later, as a consequence of the insufficiency of the latter, they were granted an allowance from the Tajo-Segura transfer. However, the irrigated area thus created never had access to the promised water resources, whose shortage was particularly pronounced in the numerous drought periods that occurred, something that also led to a considerable rise in the price of water. ; Este artículo ha recibido financiación del proyecto SEJ2004-08224/ECON del Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia.
The Tagus-Segura water transfer has generated significant value in the region that receives its water resources. Despite this value, some agents seek the cancellation of this important infrastructure, arguing economic, environmental, social, and political problems. With the aim of providing information on the efficiency of the Tagus-Segura aqueduct as a water resource management measure, especially in terms of the importance of water and the tariffs paid by the users of the aqueduct, this paper presents valuable information to analyse how to improve the functioning of the infrastructure. Thus, the southeast of Spain obtains a high return on the water received from the water transfer while covering all the financial costs derived from it. However, in 2017 a modification was introduced in the tariff that forced water users to cover the construction and fixed costs of the infrastructure as if the total amount of water agreed upon had been received, when in reality a lower amount had been received. This problem was not solved by the proposed tariffs for 2021, and it is therefore essential for the efficient operation of water transfer to modify these tariffs so that they are fair and reduce existing problems, thus avoiding the cancellation of an infrastructure that has not yet been amortised and which provides many benefits to the receiving region. ; This research was financed by the Office of the Vice President of Research and Knowledge Transfer of the University of Alicante, Spain (Marcos García-López has a scholarship for the Training of University Teachers from the University of Alicante, UAFPU2019-16) and by the University Institute of Water and Environmental Sciences of the University of Alicante.
La crisis del agua es un proceso planetario que muchas localidades ya enfrentan y otras enfrentarán algún día. Sin embargo, aún es posible pensar en soluciones para promover un modelo de desarrollo regional efectivo, basado en la justicia social, hídrica y ambiental. De esta manera, existe el trasvase del Tajo-Segura del sureste español, que completó 40 años de operación en 2019, y también la transposición brasileña, la del río São Francisco, que comenzó a operar en 2018, solo en uno de los ejes, el Este. Nuestra pregunta en este artículo es la siguiente: ¿en qué medida la presencia de un modelo de gobernanza del agua impacta positivamente en el postrasvase y qué experiencias puede demostrar Tajo-Segura en la transposición de São Francisco? Por lo tanto, al investigar el modelo de Tajo-Segura y el modelo de São Francisco in loco, tener acceso a documentos, legislación y un amplio marco teórico, aplicar el método inductivo y comparativo, fue posible llevar el impacto de una transposición a el desarrollo regional del sureste español y pensar en los problemas que tiene el modelo, o la falta de un modelo, de transponer el "Velho Chico". Por lo tanto, se pensó presentar estas intervenciones en contextos similares, sin embargo, buscando comprender la experiencia de cada una y, principalmente, cómo se desarrolló el modelo de gobernanza en la transferencia de Tajo-Segura. Por lo tanto, fue posible encontrar espacios vacios en el ejemplo brasileño. Entre ellos, se destacó el vacío institucional que transpone el São Francisco, lo que dificulta el desarrollo de múltiples usos del agua para el desarrollo regional, además del postrasvase es un problema grave que debe verificarse, esto incluye el saneamiento y recuperación ambiental de la cuenca. ; A crise hídrica é um processo planetário que muitas localidades já estão enfrentando e outras vão enfrentar um dia. Entretanto, ainda é possível pensar em soluções para impulsionar um modelo de desenvolvimento regional eficaz, que seja pautado na justiça social, hídrica e ambiental. Dessa forma, apresenta-se a transposição do Tejo-Segura do sudeste espanhol, que completou 40 anos de funcionamento em 2019, e também a transposição brasileira, a do Rio São Francisco, que iniciou seu funcionamento em 2018 apenas num dos eixos, o leste. A nossa questão no presente artigo é a seguinte: em que medida a presença de um modelo de governança hídrica impacta positivamente na postransposição e que experiências o Tejo-Segura pode demonstrar à transposição do São Francisco? Dessa forma, investigando in loco o modelo do Tejo-Segura e o modelo do São Francisco, tendo acesso a documentos, à legislação e a amplo referencial teórico, aplicando-se os métodos indutivo e comparativo, foi possível trazer o impacto de uma transposição para o desenvolvimento regional do sudeste espanhol e pensar nos problemas que o modelo, ou a falta de modelo, da transposição do "Velho Chico" possui. Portanto, pensou-se em apresentar essas intervenções em contextos semelhantes, porém, buscando compreender a experiência de cada uma e, principalmente, como se desenvolveu o modelo de governança na transferência do Tejo-Segura. Sendo assim, foi possível constatar lacunas no exemplo brasileiro. Dentre elas sobressaiu-se o vácuo institucional que se tem na transposição do São Francisco, o que torna mais difícil o desenvolvimento de múltiplos usos da água para o desenvolvimento regional, além do que o postrasvase é uma questão grave a ser verificada, e isso inclui o saneamento e a recuperação ambiental da bacia hidrográfica. ; The water crisis is a planetary process that many localities are already facing and others will face one day. However, it is still possible to think of solutions to promote an effective regional development model, based on social, water and environmental justice. In this way, there is the transposition of the Tajo-Segura of the Spanish southeast, which completed 40 years of operation in 2019, and also the Brazilian transposition, that of the São Francisco River, which started its operation in 2018, only in one of the axis, the east. Our question in this article is: To what extent does the presence of a water governance model positively impact on post-transposition and what experiences can Tajo-Segura demonstrate in transposing São Francisco? Thus, by investigating the Tajo-Segura model and the São Francisco model in loco, having access to documents, legislation and a broad theoretical framework, applying the inductive and comparative method, it was possible to bring the impact of a transposition to the regional development of the Spanish southeast and to think about the problems that the model, or the lack of a model, of transposing the "Velho Chico" has. Therefore, it was thought to present these interventions in similar contexts, however, seeking to understand the experience of each one and, mainly, how the governance model in the transfer of Tajo-Segura was developed. Thus, it was possible to find gaps in the Brazilian example. Among them, the institutional vacuum that transposes the São Francisco stood out, which makes it more difficult to develop multiple uses of water for regional development, in addition to the post transfer is a serious issue to be verified, this includes the sanitation and environmental recovery of the hydrographic basin.
Actual cost of services of local entities (CESEL, in Spanish) is the name of a new official source of statistics in Spain, provided by Ministry of Finance and Civil Service, which intends to bring some transparency to a very obscure question: the real costs of local public services, in this case, the collection costs of municipal solid waste (MSW). The study analyzes the factors that determine solid waste collection costs in 2014, using a cross-sectional dataset of municipalities of the Spanish Mediterranean Arch and Madrid, with special reference to urban development. The results of the regression reveal a positive relation between waste collection costs and factors such as higher wages, coastal municipalities, tourist areas, population and separated collection; in contrast, the increase in urban population density contributes to lower costs of MSW collection, as well as indirect management of the service is cheaper than direct public delivery. ; This work was supported by the Office of the Vice President of Research and Knowledge Transfer of the University of Alicante (Patricia Fernández-Aracil has a scholarship for The Training of University Teachers from the University of Alicante) and by the University Institute of Water and Environmental Sciences of the University of Alicante.
Accelerated growth in the Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) market, planned obsolescence, and the increase in the disposal of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) demand public policies that promote post-consumer responsibility from manufacturers of these products. Europe emerges as an example of WEEE reverse logistics (RL) implementation due to high performance models, which reveal a list of common factors: clear laws, well-defined roles, and coordinated efforts of RL actors to achieve the same goal. These elements of cooperation between the actors can partly explain the success of European countries. However, little research on this theme has been dedicated to understanding the challenges faced by developing countries in the implementation of WEEE RL. This research analyses how cooperation has impacted the implementation and results of a partnership between the Brazilian Government and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) to implement a WEEE RL pilot project (PP), called 'descarte ON', to assist in the drafting and implementation of the WEEE Sector Agreement (SA). The methodological procedures focus on indepth interviews with multiple stakeholders involved in WEEE RL. Results indicate that the PP showed it is possible to affect RL by means of cooperation among the actors, when there is a proposal that presents opportunities for all actors, with minimised risks, given the appropriate structure to implement partnerships. A favourable aspect was the participation of the retailers in the project, which for many years rejected to join RL initiatives in Brazil. On the other hand, WEEE collections were well below the expected volumes, showing that cooperation has to occur among all RL members including the final consumer. It has been found that the consumer needs to be encouraged and made aware of the benefits of proper disposal, not only in the collection phase but from the discussion and implementation of the project.
In Spain, and particularly in the Valencia Region, the scarcity of water resources means that water resource exploitation must be optimized. In this light, reusing the large amounts of treated wastewater is a top priority, especially in agriculture, urban use and the irrigation of golf courses. Rincón de León wastewater treatment plant–water reclamation plant (Alicante, Spain) supplies reclaimed flow to a number of users according to the guidelines stated in the Royal Decree 1620/2007. Reclamation treatment includes: coagulation + flocculation + filtration (sand bed), ultrafiltration, ultraviolet disinfection and desalination (reverse osmosis). By combining these processes, three tertiary treatment alternatives were configured, and for each of them the quality of effluents, treatment costs, energy consumption and the uses of treated water were analysed. The results show that the quality of the water treated using the three alternatives is suitable for different uses. Moreover, the costs resulting from the tertiary treatment processes, their energy consumption and the final price of the treated water paid by farmers have been obtained. ; This study was partially financed by the Ministry of Education via the projects 'Treatment of superficial water and wastewater by membrane technologies to obtain high quality effluents' (CTM2010-15348) and 'Treatment and wastewater reuse for a sustainable management' (CONSOLIDER) (CSD200644), as well as by the Ministry of Science and Innovation via the project 'Quality of Aquifers and agricultural impacts' (DER2011-27765), and the Council for Education, Formation and Occupation of the Government of Valencia (ACOMP 2012/136).
The issues of wastewater treatment and the reuse of water are of great importance, especially in areas where the shortage of conventional resources is a structural problem, as it is in the case of Spain. Wastewater reuse is a valid mechanism to avoid problems derived from droughts and water scarcity. It allows access to water resources in areas with water restrictions and to prevent futures scenarios, due to it being expected that water consumption will double by 2050 over the world. Thus, the likelihood that this unconventional, strategic resource would become scarce is unquestionable, particularly in cases where water planning and exploitation systems prioritize the preservation, protection, and improvement of water quality, as well as the sustainable and efficient use of natural resources. This paper shows how wastewater treatment and reuse are linked, as the reuse of wastewater is associated with a previous regeneration, and both of them are essential tools for maximizing environmental outcomes, as called for in the European Union Directives. ; This research was funded partially by the projects GRE17-12 and Life Empore (grant number: Life15 ENV/ES/000598) coordinated by the University of Alicante. Antonio Jodar-Abellan acknowledges financial support received from the Spanish FPU scholarship for the training of university teachers. In the same way, this work has been conducted within the Cátedra del Agua of the University of Alicante (https://catedradelaguaua.org/).
