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Chapter Part I Theoretical aspects PUBLIC EXPENDITURES, TAXES, DEBT AND ENDOGENOUS GROWTH /Patrick Artus --part STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT AND PUBLIC DEFICIT: A CGE MODELLING ANALYSIS FOR GREECE Pantélis Capros and Pavlos Karadeloglou --chapter 1 PUBLIC DEFICITS AND INCOME DISTRIBUTION: RESULTS OF AN ECONOMETRIC BUSINESS CYCLE MODEL FOR THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY --chapter 2 ENDOGENOUS GROWTH AND BUDGETARY POLICY IN THE OPEN ECONOMY --part PART II PUBLIC DEFICITS AND STABILIZATION --chapter 3 PROPOSALS FOR COMMUNITY STABILIZATION MECHANISMS --chapter 4 SOME STOCHASTIC IMPLICATIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT'S BUDGET CONSTRAINT --chapter 5 CREDIT CONSTRAINTS AND THE EFFICIENCY OF BUDGETARY POLICY --chapter 6 STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT AND PUBLIC DEFICIT --chapter 7 PUBLIC DEFICITS AND INCOME DISTRIBUTION --part PART III STRUCTURE OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURES AND IMPLICATIONS --chapter 8 PUBLIC SPENDING IN FEDERAL STATES --chapter 9 CAUSALITY BETWEEN PUBLIC EXPENDITURE AND TAXATION --chapter 10 ON THE EFFICACY, EFFICIENCY AND EQUITY OF STATE SUPPORT IN BRITAIN.

We use the methodology developed in a previous study to individualise all incomes reported in the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (2006). Based on individual incomes we compute financial-dependency rates which are compared with the household-level at-risk-of-poverty rates defined by the European Commission. The determinants of financial dependency are studied by means of descriptive statistics and by the estimation of bivariate probit regressions for men and women. We cover nine European countries. Finally, four new indicators are proposed to complement the Laeken indicators.

This article reviews the literature relating to the explanatory power of different welfare state typologies when viewed from the perspective of mothers. The seminal work of Esping-Andersen is in this respect criticised; such typologies are more easily applicable to welfare states organised according to the dominant male breadwinner model. When the specific situation of mothers is considered, the main finding is that welfare states are hardly ever pure types and are usually hybrid cases that foster mothers' welfare in different forms and to different extents. In order to more accurately reflect current societies that rely on women both as participants in the market place and as mothers, the alternative typology of 'gender regime clusters' is presented. Finally, it is argued that future classifications of welfare state regimes are bound to reflect not only gender-related characteristics of today's societies but also the set of cultural values and ideals that differ across countries.

In most of the European Union countries, decisions related to the third pillar guidelines fall to those involved in collective bargaining. This is certainly the case for everything covered under Guideline 16 and, in particular, questions related to the reduction, reorganisation or modernisation of working time, with the exception of part-time work, which is very often the subject of statutory or legislative measures. Thus, we find numerous references to part-time work in the NAPs, whether to measures intended to facilitate the use of this form of work by employers or employees, or to the need to improve the working conditions of part-timers. On the other hand, all of the NAPs - with a few exceptions - are very circumspect, or not very explicit, about aspects linked to the duration and organisation of working time. It is difficult, moreover, to judge the progress made within the Member States with respect to partnership at all levels, as encouraged in the guidelines, which is meant to be one of the essential factors contributing to a modernisation of work organisation and an improvement in firms' adaptability. Although social pacts have been concluded in certain countries (Italy, Ireland, Luxembourg, Finland), their real scope cannot be evaluated by studying the National Action Plans. Moreover, their possible effects can only be judged over time. Investment in human capital is without doubt the aspect which comes up least in the NAPs, or can in any case be described as the dimension where innovative input is most lacking. Finally, the gender dimension puts in too rare an appearance in the third pillar, even though working time, employment contracts and training are three areas where the gender dimension is essential and causes significant stratification. It emerges from a close examination of the NAPs that the third pillar is interpreted in too restrictive a manner, underestimating the modernisation of work organisation aspect, and lacking an overall vision of the true potential of a strategy to modernise the organisation of work and working time.

In den meisten EU-Ländern sind Entscheidungen im Zusammenhang mit dem dritten Pfeiler Anpassungsfähigkeit Ergebnis von Tarifverhandlungen. Das trifft vor allem auf die Punkte zu, die unter die Leitlinie 16 fallen, und besonders auf Fragen, die sich auf die Verringerung, Neuorganisation und Modernisierung der Arbeitszeit beziehen. Ausgenommen davon ist Teilzeitarbeit, die oft Gegenstand von gesetzlichen Regelungen ist. Folglich finden sich in den Nationalen Aktionsplänen (NAP) zahlreiche Hinweise auf Teilzeitarbeit, sei es, um ihre Einführung auf seiten von Arbeitgebern und Beschäftigten zu fördern, sei es, um die Arbeitsbedingungen von teilzeitbeschäftigten ArbeitnehmerIinnen zu verbessern. Andererseits sind alle Aktionspläne sehr zurückhaltend, oder zumindest nicht sehr explizit, was die Dauer und die Organisation der Arbeitszeit betrifft. Es ist schwer, den Fortschritt in den Mitgliedstaaten im Hinblick auf Partnerschaften auf den verschiedenen Ebenen zu beurteilen. Die Leitlinien ermutigen dazu, Partnerschaften werden als Schlüsselelement angesehen, wenn es um die Modernisierung der Arbeitsorganisation und die Anpassungsfähigkeit der Unternehmen geht. Obwohl Sozialpakte in verschiedenen Ländern (Italien, Irland, Luxemburg und Finnland) geschlossen wurden, so können ihre tatsächlichen Auswirkungen nicht beurteilt werden, wenn man nur auf die Nationalen Aktionspläne schaut. Eine realistische Beurteilung ist erst im Lauf der Zeit möglich. Investitionen in Humankapital ist der Bereich, der am wenigsten in den Nationalen Aktionsplänen vorkommt bzw. wo innovative Ansätze am meisten fehlen. Schließlich kommen auch geschlechtsspezifische Fragen zu wenig in den Aktionsplänen vor, obgleich Arbeitszeit, Arbeitsverträge und Fortbildung drei Bereiche sind, wo geschlechtsbezogene Unterschiede eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Eine Untersuchung der Nationalen Aktionspläne zeigt ein zu enges Verständnis des dritten Pfeilers. Die Modernisierung der Arbeitsorganisation wird unterschätzt, und es fehlt eine umfassende Vision davon, wie eine künftige Strategie für eine Modernisierung von Arbeitsorganisation und Arbeitszeit aussehen könnte. (Transfer / FUB)

This article aims at analysing the quality of the potential employment created by local employment initiatives and more specifically the impact on the female labour force. The discussion on gender and the quality of created employment seems to be of importance as most European Union Member States are promoting job creation linked to local initiatives in typical female work areas such as caring and domestic work. The second section outlines important elements for the development of local initiatives, while the third section estimates the potential employment which is likely to be occupied by women. In section four an analysis of the quality of the created employment and the impact on the male and female labour force can be found. Section five briefly summarises the employment policies put forward in the European Union and section six shows real-life examples of local initiatives. Conclusions can be found in section seven.

Welches sind die potentiellen Auswirkungen von lokalen Beschäftigungsinitiativen, wie wirken sie sich im besonderen auf die Situation von Frauen aus? Diese Diskussion ist deshalb wichtig, weil in den meisten EU-Mitgliedstaaten durch lokale Initiativen Arbeitsplätze vor allem im Pflege- und Haushaltsbereich geschaffen werden. Im zweiten Abschnitt geht es um wichtige Elemente bei der Entwicklung von lokalen Beschäftigungsinitiativen; der dritte Abschnitt untersucht das Beschäftigungspotential, das sich für Frauen ergibt. Abschnitt 4 enthält eine qualitative Analyse der geschaffenen Arbeitsplätze und untersucht die Auswirkungen auf die Arbeitnehmer(innen). In Abschnitt 5 werden die Beschäftigungspolitiken in der EU vorgestellt, während es in Abschnitt 6 um konkrete Beispiele lokaler Beschä ftigungsinitiativen geht. Die Schlußfolgerungen schließlich finden sich in Abschnitt 7. (Transfer / FUB)

The "in-work at-risk-of-poverty rate" is a European indicator that is based on a series of assumptions rarely questioned although with particularly strong consequences for the calculation of the in-work poverty risk and for the design of policies to combat it. The purpose of this paper is to show the volatility in the measured proportions of working poor according to different methodological choices in terms of the unit of analysis, the measure of income and the population of workers. In a country-specific econometric analysis we show the differential impact of individual characteristics, the household structure and employment-related factors on the in-work poverty risk according to whether individual or equivalised household income is used to measure this risk. Our analysis covers 8 European countries and is based on 2007 data from the European Statistics on Income and Living Conditions.