My grasp of the research area of music and diplomacy is grounded on the experience that I gained through the realization of a project investigating the Belgrade Choral Society's concert tours abroad at the turn of the 20th century. There, I explored how music was incorporated into the diplomatic strategies that the Kingdom of Serbia practiced in its cross-border relationships with empires, states, cities and ethnic communities of the Central, Eastern, South-Eastern and Ottoman Europe of the time. Focusing on a new topic in this article, my approach to music in diplomatic interactions remains the same line. It is placed in the context of cultural diplomacy and poses questions about the involvement of music in policies and practices of cross-border networking, exchange, representation, negotiation and mediation, while encompassing different state officials and non-officials, groups, institutions and organizations, as well as both formal and informal, elitist and non-elitist events and activities. Such an approach shares its interests with a spectrum of contemporary studies that open the space for investigating diplomacy as a social and cultural practice.
One of the most intricate problems of Serbian culture at the beginning of the 20th century referred to the attempts to establish a separate Opera branch of the National Theatre in Belgrade. Polemics about whether the Theatre should cultivate spoken drama only, or both drama and opera as well, contributed to the arising of the "opera question", a complex issue affected by aesthetic, political, social and economic agents. The "opera question" resulted in discontinuities in improvements of musical ensemble and opera performances of the time, being resolved only later, in restructuring of the Belgrade National Theatre after the First World War (branches of Drama and Opera in 1920, and of Ballet in 1923). I focus my attention on a set of behind-the-scene aspects of opera productions of the National Theatre at the beginning of the 20th century in order to define different, but mutually intertwined agents of the postponed reorganisation of this institution. My main aim is to show that 1) the political and cultural rivalry of leading intellectuals of this institution, and 2) the weak positions of musical representatives in the distribution of power at the National Theatre were crucial in different attempts to establish a separate Opera branch in the Theatre. In this context I illuminate the historical circumstances as well as peculiarities in the field of Serbian music. I place attention on frequent changes of the management staff whose representatives, being active in both the political and cultural fields, showed inconsistency between their ideological and artistic intentions. Contesting programme policies and struggles for power inside the Theatre determined discontinuity of musical practice, actually the two short periods of opera production (1906–1909; 1913–1914) before the Great War. ; Ena največjih težav srbske kulture na začetku 20. stoletja so bili poskusi ustanavljanja ločenega opernega odseka v Narodnem gledališču v Beogradu. Polemike o tem, ali naj gledališče goji le govorjeno igro ali tako igro kot opero, so prispevale k nastanku kompleksnega »vprašanja opere«, na katero so vplivali estetski, politični, družbeni in gospodarski dejavniki. Zaradi »vprašanja opere« je bil razvoj glasbenega ansambla in opernih predstav v tistem času večkrat prekinjen, rešitev pa je prišla šele pozneje, s prenovo beograjskega Narodnega gledališča po prvi svetovni vojni (dramski in operni odsek leta 1920 ter baletni odsek leta 1923). Osredotočam se na nekatere vidike zakulisja opernih produkcij v Narodnem gledališču na začetku 20. stoletja, da bi opredelila različne, a povezane dejavnike, ki so vplivali na zapoznelo reorganizacijo ustanove. Moj namen je pokazati, da so politično in kulturno rivalstvo med vodilnimi intelektualci te ustanove ter šibek položaj glasbenih predstavnikov v razporeditvi moči v Narodnem gledališču odločilno vplivali na različne poskuse ustanovitve ločenega opernega odseka znotraj gledališča. V tem kontekstu razjasnjujem zgodovinske okoliščine in posebnosti na srbskem glasbenem področju. Pozornost namenjam pogostim spremembam v vodstvu, katerega predstavniki, dejavni na političnem in kulturnem področju, v svojih ideoloških in umetniških namenih niso bili dosledni. Kresanje programskih politik in boj za prevlado znotraj gledališča sta zaznamovala nepovezanost glasbene dejavnosti, to je dve kratki obdobji operne produkcije (1906–1909 in 1913–1914) pred drugo svetovno vojno.
This study deals with the first Serbian oratorio, Vaskrsenje (Resurrection) by Stevan Hristić, and the first Serbian musical drama, Divina Tragoedia by Milenko Paunović. These works are based on two different interpretations of the same theme (the Resurrection of Jesus Christ). They were composed almost at the same time (1912), but separately, with no inter-textual relations. They represent the first steps of Modernism in Serbian music. Hristić's work follows the French and Italian heritage whereas Paunović's is connected with the German, post-Wagnerian tradition. In this text we highlight the different intensities of modernity realized by the composers, by comparing numerous aspects of the theme, genre and style with new types of expressiveness and procedures in the treatment of all musical resources. The parallel investigation of the oratorio and musical drama shows the closeness of these two young composers in their musical attempts, but also emphasizes some factors that were decisive for the public presentation of their works. Hristić predicted that the genre of oratorio had better chances of placement than, for example, a symphonic or musical-dramatic composition. Actually, a choir had strong links with tradition and it presented a significant means of potential communication, as well as penetrating novelties into other parts of the oratorio. Due to his readiness to make an effort and to compromise, the composer succeeded in performing his work. On the other hand, Paunović did not anticipate problems in the national cultural system of his time. Numerous aspects of his work, which prevented performance, confirm this. The chosen genre of German musical drama was a very speculative investment in the local musical context. Furthermore, the score was inappropriate for the real reproductive potential of Serbian performers. In addition, an avant-garde gesture was marked by the blasphemous treatment of the New-Testament theme in the dramatic content. These were among the most important indications of the author's unrealistic estimation of potential public reception of his music. Modern works of large-scale genre had no prospects of continual survival on the concert repertoire in the period between the two World Wars, either. This testifies to long-standing problems of national musical tradition, especially in consequence of its discontinued and uneven development. This study of early modernism shows the value of researching Serbian music through different cultural models existing in the system of national art of this time. The network of political, economical and cultural institutions was imbued with modern bourgeois culture, but the struggle for its wider acceptance in the domains of everyday life, self-consciousness, and the mentality and taste of different social groups and individuals, was slow and long. Such attempts have not always and fully realized the particular burden of inheritance, reflected in recent times. ; Prvi srpski oratorijum, Vaskrsenje Stevana Hristića i prva srpska muzička drama, Božanska tragedija Milenka Paunovića nastali su gotovo istovremeno bez međusobnih intertekstualnih relacija. Oba ostvarenja ukazuju na rane znake srpskog muzičkog modernizma, koji su se u vidu žanrovskog i stilskog pluralizma i začetaka moderne muzičke svesti pojavili krajem prve i početkom druge decenije 20. veka. U tekstu je sproveden niz paralelnih ispitivanja s namerom de se praktičnim primerima potkrepi širina i značaj kulturološkog pristupa u sagledavanju srpske muzike kroz različite modele kulture koji su se preplitali, naporedo trajali i iskazivali u neprekidnoj sprezi svih domena umetničke prakse i njene recepcije.
Focus on the internalization of Western images in the Balkans has special significance in researching Serbian art. The functioning of Balkanism as it overlapped and intersected with Orientalism is indicated in the text by an examination of the cases of Petar Konjović, Miloje Milojević and Josip Slavenski, the three significant composers working in Serbia during the first half of the twentieth century. Their modernistic projects present different metaphors of the Balkans. Nevertheless each of them is marked by desire to change the Balkan image into a 'positive' one and thus stands as a special voice for Serbian and regional placing in European competition for musical spaces. ; U proučavanju srpske muzike prve polovine XX veka ne mogu se ignorisati iterpretativne strategije o Balkanu koje je Zapadna Evropa, shodno sopstvenim pozicijama moći i ideologijama oslonjenim na ideju progresa stvarala i plasirala kao objektivne i nepromenljive datosti. Stereotipne predstave o ovom regionu kao kulturno inferiornom, prelaznom svetu između Istoka i Zapada, posebno su kulminirale u istorijskom kontekstu prvih decenija XX veka. One su bile deo geopolitičkih, ekonomskih i kulturnih frustracija ugrađenih u pozitivnu sliku 'civilizovane Evrope', pa tako i jedan od simptoma krize zapadnog liberalno-buržoaskog društva i njegove modernosti. Iako su direktno povezane sa padom Otomanskog carstva, nastankom nacionalnih država na Balkanu i aktuelizovanjem njihovog statusa u Evropi one upućuju na kontinuitet različitih, ali uvek prisutnih podela u kojima su se slike o Balkanu, kao religijskoj, kulturnoj, ideološkoj i/ili političkoj drugosti uže Evrope međusobno smenjivale i snažile u istorijskom kontinuumu od srednjeg veka do današnjeg vremena. U tekstu se ispituje mogućnost proučavanja i razumevanja srpske muzike prve polovine XX stoleća u kontekstu kritike balkanizma i orijentalizma. Pažnja je posvećena opusima i/ili pisanoj reči Petra Konjovića, Miloja Milojevića i Josipa Slavenskog, a stvaralačke reakcije ovih kompozitora na liminalni status regiona sagledane su kao tri različite metafore Balkana. U modernističkim konceptima Konjovića i Milojevića, predstave o regionalnoj muzici i njenom mestu u relacijama simboličke geografije Evrope ukazuju na kritički odnos prema negativnim slikama Balkana, ali u pojedinim aspektima otkrivaju i reprodukciju i variranje balkanističke i orijentalističke perspektive. Vezivanje za 'Istok' ili za 'Zapad' delimično je rešavalo problem percepcije Balkana kao 'prelaza', a stavove o životu na raskršću ili granici svetova gde su balkanski narodi zasnivali smisao sopstvenog identiteta, bilo je zapravo veoma teško izmestiti u neke nove, drugačije kognitivne dimenzije. U tom kontekstu, modernistička percepcija koju je ponudio Slavenski, konstruišući integralnu sliku Balkana kao potencijalnog muzičkog centra Evrope mogla bi se protumačiti ne samo kao kritika već i kao umetnička inverzija ustaljenih stereotipa o regionu.
Financial dependence of singing societies in the state of Serbia and Kingdom of Yugoslavia is particularly analyzed in the paper, with a view to pointing to problems which hindered the advancement of music culture in the civil society. As other similar institutions of civic type, choirs did not have at their disposal sufficient financial, social and symbolic capital independent of the state, so they did not possess the power to influence on the government authorities. Although the period between World Wars brought evident improvement in the state treatment of music institutions, it could not be interpreted as a fundamental shift. The treatment of the Yugoslav singing union (Južnoslovenski pevački savez), which fought for promotion of music culture in the Yugoslav society, is particularly indicative. This largest music organization in the country, fostering ideology of integral Yugoslavism, strived to contribute to ethnic and social cohesion of different regions through singing. In its plans for improving singing practice this organization exhibited a clear vision for activism in favor of the nation and state, but the state authorities did not know how or did not desire to make use of it. Certain information suggests indolent and at times negative, discouraging attitude of authorities towards different ways of improvement of music practice, both art and society wise, which opens a new horizon for future studies and for better comprehension of contemporary problems as well. ; U radu su analizirani pojedini aspekti odnosa sfere države prema pevačkim udruženjima kao najmasovnijim muzičkim institucijama civilnog tipa u Srbiji do 1918. i Kraljevini SHS/Jugoslaviji. Cilj je da se ukaže na socijalni kontekst problema koji su ometali unapređenje muzičke kulture srpskog i jugoslovenskog društva.
