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Space has become increasingly crowded since the turn of the century, as a growing number of countries, companies, and even private citizens have begun operating satellites and become spacefarers. Crowded Orbits offers readers a valuable primer on space policy from an international perspective, examining technology, diplomacy, commerce, science, and military applications. This second edition is thoroughly updated to cover events of the decade following the book's original publication in 2014, when the pace of the competition to exploit space has accelerated dramatically. James Clay Moltz examines the ongoing tension between competition and cooperation in space, tracing the geopolitical and policy consequences of key developments. Drawing on decades of experience, he considers possible avenues for collaboration among the growing number of actors as well as the forces driving potential space-related conflicts. Moltz examines the challenges to existing treaties and other governance mechanisms that have struggled to keep up with the spread of technology. He provides policy recommendations to enhance international collaboration, further scientific exploration, and restrain harmful military activities. This edition features analysis of a range of topics, including the ongoing commercialization of space by SpaceX, Planet, and other start-up companies; new capabilities to monitor Earth from space; renewed tensions between the United States and rivals China and Russia in military activities; and emerging multinational competition on the Moon.

The dynamics of space security : existing explanations -- Space and environmental security -- Roots of the U.S.-Soviet space race : 1920s-1962 -- The emergence of cooperative restraint : 1962-1975 -- Challenges to space security and their resolution : 1976-1991 -- Post-cold war space uncertainty : 1992-2000 -- Renewed U.S. space nationalism : 2001-2008 -- Expanding international norms amid tensions : 2009-present -- Alternative futures for space security.

The article of record may be found at https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/SSQ/documents/Volume-13_Issue-1/Moltz.pdf ; Many recent assessments of space power have posited a US decline and predicted a gloomy future in comparison to China and Russia. However, such analyses—based almost exclusively on state-run activities—present only part of the picture. In the twenty-first century, a new form of bottom-up, net-centric, commercially led space innovation is emerging that promises cheaper and more timely technological developments to those nations that can effectively tap into them, thus reshaping traditional definitions of space power. This study first sets a baseline by focusing on Cold War space power determinants, next analyzes recent changes among the three leading spacefaring nations, and then looks into the future, factoring in the expanded role of commercial space start-ups and military space alliances. The article concludes that new forms of networked space power could put the United States in a more favor-able position than countries relying on state-controlled innovation and development.

Given the growing number of actors and spacecraft in orbit, the major challenge facing the international community is one of collective action….